Translation Theory And Practice Manual

Translation Theory and Practice

This portion of the manual teaches translation theory and how to make a good translation for Other Languages (OLs). Some of the principles of translation in this manual also apply to Gateway Language translation. For specific instruction on how to translate the set of translation tools for Gateway Languages, however, please see the Gateway Language Manual. It will be very helpful to study many of these modules before starting any type of translation project. Other modules, such as the ones about grammar, are only needed for "just-in-time" learning.

Some highlights in the Translation Manual:

• The Qualities of a Good Translation - defining a good translation
• The Translation Process - how to achieve a good translation
• Choosing a Translation Team - some items to consider before starting a translation project
• Choosing What to Translate - what to start translating

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Terms to Know

Note: These are terms are used in this manual. The translator will need to understand these terms in order to use the Translation Manual.

The terms are listed below in four categories: "Translation," "Translation Products," "Texts," and "Grammar and Figures of Speech."

Translation

Translation - The process of expressing in the form of a target language the same meaning that a writer or speaker expressed in the form of a source language.

Original Language - The language in which a Bible text was initially written. The original language of the New Testament is Greek. The original language of most of the Old Testament is Hebrew. However, the original language of some parts of Daniel and Ezra is Aramaic. The original language is always the most accurate language from which to translate a passage.

Source Language - The language from which the translation is being made.

Source Text- The text from which the translation is being made.

Target Language - The language into which a translation is being made.

Target Text- The text being made by the translator as he or she translates the meaning from the source text.

Language of Wider Communication - A language that is spoken over a broad area and by many people. For most people, this is not their first language, but is the language that they use to speak to people outside of their language community. Some people call this a trade language. Most Bibles will be translated using a language of wider communication as the source language.

Gateway Language - A Gateway Language (GL) is a language of wider communication that we have identified as being one of the languages into which we will translate all of our translation tools. The set of Gateway Languages is the smallest number of languages through which content can be delivered to every other language of the world, through translation by bilingual speakers.

Other Language - The Other Languages (OLs) are all of the languages of the world that are not Gateway Languages. We translate our Bible translation tools into the Gateway Languages so that people can use those tools to translate the Bible into the Other Languages.

Literal Translation - A translation that focuses on reproducing the form of the source text in the target text, even if the meaning changes as a result.

Meaning-based Translation (or Dynamic Translation) - A translation that focuses on reproducing the meaning of the source text in the target text, even if the form changes as a result.

Translation Products

Biblical Content - The Bible and other materials that help people understand and apply the Bible to their lives, such as “Open Bible Stories,” Bible dictionaries, Bible study materials, and scripture memory programs.

End-user Bible - This is a Bible that people have translated so that it speaks in a natural way in the target language. It is meant to be used in churches and homes. In contrast, the ULB and UDB are Bibles that are translation tools. They do not speak naturally in any language, because the ULB is a literal translation and the UDB avoids using idioms and figures of speech, which a natural translation would use. Using these translation tools, a translator can produce an end-user Bible.

Texts

Term - A word or phrase that refers to one thing, idea, or action. For example, the term in English for pouring liquid into one's mouth is "drink." The term for a ceremony that marks an important transition in someone's life is "rite of passage." The difference between a term and a word is that a term can contain several words.

Text - A text is something that a speaker or writer is communicating to a hearer or reader by means of language. The speaker or writer has a certain meaning in mind, and so he or she chooses a form of the language to express that meaning.

Passage - A section of the Bible text that is being talked about. This can be as small as one verse, but it is usually several verses that together have one topic or tell one story.

Context - The words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs surrounding the word, phrase, or sentence in question. The context is the text that surrounds the part of the text that you are examining. The meaning of individual words and phrases can change when they are in different contexts.

Form - The structure of the language as it appears on the page or as it is spoken. "Form" refers to the way that the language is arranged-it includes the words, the word order, the grammar, idioms, and any other features of the structure of the text.

Meaning - The underlying idea or concept that the text is trying to communicate to the reader or hearer. A speaker or writer can communicate the same meaning by using different forms of the language, and different people can understand different meanings from hearing or reading the same language form. In this way you can see that form and meaning are not the same thing.

Gramar and Figures of Speech

Grammar - The way that sentences are put together in a language. This has to do with the order of its various parts, such as if the verb goes first or last or in the middle.

Noun - A kind of word that refers to a person, place, or thing. A proper noun is the name of a person or place. An abstract noun is a thing that we cannot see or touch, like "peace" or "unity." It refers to an idea or a state of being. Some languages do not use abstract nouns.

Verb - A kind of word that refers to an action, like "walk" or "arrive."

Modifier - A kind of word that says something about another word. Both adjectives and adverbs are modifiers.

Adjective - A kind of word that says something about a noun. For example, the word "tall" says something about the noun "man" in the following sentence. I see a tall man.

Adverb - A kind of word that says something about a verb. For example, the word "loudly" says something about the verb "spoke" in the following sentence. The man spoke loudly to the crowd of people.

Participant - A participant is one of the actors in a sentence. This could be the person doing the action, or the person that is receiving the action, or mentioned as participating in some way. A participant could even be an object that is stated as participating in the action of the sentence. For example, in the following sentence, the participants are underlined: John and Mary sent a letter to Andrew. Sometimes participants are left unstated, but they are still part of the action. In this case, the participant is implied. For example, in the following sentence, there are only two participants stated: Andrew received a letter. The senders, John and Mary, are implied. In some languages, the implied participants must be stated.

Idiom - An expression that uses several words and that means something different as a whole than it would if the words were understood with the meanings that they have when they are used separately. Idioms cannot be translated literally, that is, with the meanings of the separate words. For example, "he kicked the bucket" is an idiom in English that means "he died."

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What is Translation?

Definition

Translation is a process performed between different languages that requires a person (the translator) to understand the meaning that a writer or speaker intended to communicate to an original audience in the source language, and then to express that same meaning to a different audience in the target language.

This is how translation is supposed to work most of the time, but sometimes certain translations have other goals, such as to reproduce the form of a source language, as we will see below.

There are basically two kinds of translations: literal and dynamic (or meaning-based).

• Literal translations focus on representing words in the source language with words in the target language that have similar basic meanings. They also use phrases that have similar structures to the phrases in the source language. This kind of translation allows the reader to see the structure of the source text, but it can make it difficult or impossible for the reader to understand the meaning of the source text.
• Dynamic, meaning-based translations, focus on representing the meaning of the source language sentence in its context, and will use whatever words and phrase structures are most appropriate to convey that meaning in the target language. The goal of this kind of translation is to make it easy for the reader to understand the meaning of the source text. This is the kind of translation recommended in this Translation Manual for Other Language (OL) translations.

The Unlocked Literal Bible (ULB) is designed to be a literal translation, so that the OL translator can see the forms of the original biblical languages. The Unlocked Dynamic Bibe (UDB) is designed to be a dynamic translation, so that the OL translator can understand the meaning of these forms in the Bible. The ULB is designed to be the source text, and the UDB is designed to be a tool for affirming understanding of the source text and observing ways of expressing the meaning in a clear and dynamic way.

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More about Translation

Why do people translate texts?

Translators in general have different reasons for doing their work. Their reasons depend on the kind of document they are translating, and on the needs of the person who has asked them to translate it. In the case of Bible translation, people usually do their work because they want the Bible's ideas to affect the target language readers in the same way that the original readers and hearers of the biblical texts were affected. Because God's ideas in the Bible lead us to eternal life with him through Jesus Christ, translators want the target language readers to know his ideas.

How do we as Bible translators usually expect to represent the biblical ideas?

There are various ways in which we can represent the ideas in a source text: we can put them into a list, we can summarize them using far less space on the written page, we can simplify them (as we often do in children's Bible story books and in other kinds of Bible helps), or we can even put them into diagrams or charts. However, Bible translators usually try to present the biblical ideas as completely as possible. This also means that they try to produce in translation the same kinds of documents as the original documents (a prophecy for a prophecy, a letter for a letter, a book of history for a book of history, etc.) Also, they try to recreate the same tensions in the translation that exist in the source texts.

What do we mean by "tension" in texts?

Examples of tension occur when a reader wonders what will happen next to the participants in a story, or when a reader follows the argument, encouragement, and warnings of an epistle writer or of a conversation that is reported in the text. A reader can feel tension when reading a psalm, since the praises of God affect the psalmist in various ways. When reading an Old Testament prophetic book, the reader can feel tension rise as the prophet condemns people for their sin, or as he warns them to turn back to God. Tension may also be felt when reading about God's promises for the future, as one considers when God fulfilled those promises, or when he will fulfill them.

Another way to talk about recreating the tensions in the source text is to say that the translation should have the same effect on the target audience that the source text had on the original audience. For example, if the source text is a rebuke to the original audience, the target audience should also feel the translation as a rebuke. A translator will need to think about how the target language expresses rebukes and other types communication, so that the translation will have the right kind of effect on the target audience.

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Defining a Good Translation

The Qualities of a Good Translation

Four Main Qualities

There are four main qualities of a good translation. It must be:

• Clear - see Create Clear Translations
• Natural - see Create Natural Translations
• Accurate - see Create Accurate Translations
• Church-Affirmed - see Create Church-Affirmed Translations

We can think of each of these qualities as a leg of a four-legged stool. Each one is necessary. If one is missing, the stool will not stand well. Likewise, each of these qualities must be present in a translation in order for it to be useful and faithful to the church.

Clear

Use whatever language structures are necessary to achieve the highest level of comprehension. This includes simplifying concepts, rearranging the form of a text, and using as many or as few terms as necessary to communicate the original meaning as accurately as possible. To learn how to make Clear Translations, see Create Clear Translations.

Natural

Use language forms that are effective and that reflect the way your language is used in corresponding contexts. To learn how to make Natural Translations, see Create Natural Translations.

Accurate

Translate accurately, without detracting from, changing, or adding to the meaning of the original text as it would have been understood by the original audience. Translate with the meaning of the text in mind and communicate accurately the implicit information, unknown concepts, and figures of speech. To learn how to make Accurate Translations, see Create Accurate Translations.

Church-Affirmed

If a translation is clear, natural and accurate, but the church does not affirm it or accept it, then it does not achieve the final goal of edifying the church. It is important that the church be involved in the translation, checking, and distribution of the translation. To learn how to make church-affirmed translations, see Create Church-Affirmed Translations.

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Son of God and God the Father

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Create Authoritative Translations

An authoritative Bible translation is one that is based on the biblical texts in the original languages as the highest authority for the meaning of biblical content. Whenever two or more translations of the Bible disagree about the meaning of a Bible passage, it is the original languages that have the final authority for deciding the meaning. Sometimes people are very loyal to certain Bible translations that they are accustomed to reading, and might argue with other people who are loyal to a different Bible translation. But neither of those Bible translations are the highest authority, because they are only translations of the original. All translations are secondary in authority to the original languages. That is why we must always refer to the original biblical languages when deciding how to translate the Bible.

Since not all translation teams have a member who can read the original languages of the Bible, it is not always possible to refer to the biblical languages when translating the Bible. Instead, the translation team has to rely on translations that they are able to read that have, in turn, been based on the biblical languages. Many of the translations in the Gateway Languages were translated from the biblical languages, including the ULB, but some are translations of translations. It is easy for errors to be introduced when a translation is two or three steps removed from the original.

To help with this problem, we recommend that translation teams do these things whenever possible:

1. Use Translation Notes, Translation Words, and any other translation resources they have to help them understand the meaning of the original text. The translation resources made available by Wycliffe Associates were reviewed by Bible scholars who know the original biblical languages and by Bible translation specialists.
2. Compare their translation with as many other reliable translations as they can, to make sure that it communicates the same message as the others.
3. Invite someone from the language community who has studied the biblical languages to review the translation and offer feedback to the translation team. This person could be a church leader, pastor, seminary professor, or Bible translation professional.

Sometimes Bible translations differ because some passages in the Bible are unclear or ambiguous in the original biblical languages. In that case, the translation team must choose between the possible meanings based on what Bible scholars say in Translation Notes, Translation Words, the Unlocked Dynamic Bible, and other translation helps. It is important for the team to work together on making these deicions and to humbly submit to the input of their leaders and pastors.

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Create Historical Translations

A historical definition translation communicates historical events and facts accurately. Providing additional information as needed in order to accurately communicate the intended message to people who do not share the same context and culture as the original recipients of the original content.

To communicate well with historical accuracy, you need to remember two things:

1. The Bible is a historical document. The events of the Bible happened in the way that the Bible describes at different times in history. Therefore, when you translate the Bible, you need to communicate that these events happened, and do not change any of the details of what happened.
2. The books of the Bible were written down at specific times in history for people of a certain culture. This means that some things in the Bible that were very clear to the original hearers and readers will not be clear to those who read the Bible in different times and in different cultures. This is because both the writer and the readers were familiar with many of the practices that the writer wrote about, and so the writer did not need to explain them. We, from other times and cultures, are not familiar with these things, and so we need someone to explain them to us. This kind of information is called "implicit (or implied) information." (see Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information")

As translators, we need to translate the historical details accurately, but also provide some explanation when we think that our readers will need it, so that they can understand what the translation is about.

• For example, Genesis 12:16 refers to camels. For readers in parts of the world where this animal is unknown, it might be good to provide a description. The best way to do this is in a footnote, or in a glossary entry such as the one in translationWords.

Sometimes, an explanation can be included in the text, as long as it is brief and does not distract the reader from the main point of the text.

• For example, the New Testament writers often referred to events in the Old Testament, but without explaining what they were referring to. They knew that their readers were very familiar with the Old Testament, and did not need any explanation. But it is possible that readers from other times and places will need some explanation.

Let us compare 1 Corinthians 10:1 from the ULB and UDB.

"I do not want you to be uninformed, brothers, that our fathers were all under the cloud and all passed through the sea." (ULB)

"I want you to remember, brothers and sisters, that our Jewish ancestors were following God, who led them out of Egypt by means of a cloud during the day, and that they passed through the Sea of Reeds on dry land." (UDB)

Notice that the UDB makes several points explicit: the 'fathers were all under the cloud' tells of the time that God led the Jewish ancestors as a cloud. The statement that 'our fathers passed through the sea' is also about the 'passing through the Red Sea in the time of the exodus.' The UDB translator decided to explicitly describe the historical events. This is a way to translate historical events that is more meaningful for those who have little knowledge of Old Testament history.

Include or refer to the needed implicit information intended by the original writer that will be necessary for your community to understand what is written.

Maintain the historical accuracy of the message. Avoid referring to items and events that were not present in the Bible times. Do not make your translation sound like it is a modern-day event.

Remember:

• Keep true to the historical text. The original message, historical events, and cultural background information should all be the same as it was written in the source text. For example, the translation must not have the message rewritten so that events happened at a different place or time. This includes using accurate geographical terms for topography, plant, and animal life. To keep the text historically accurate, the translator must find a way to translate "fig tree" and not just substitute "banana tree" because that is a type of tree familiar to his readers. To be sure, if fig trees are not a part of the environment of the target language, there may be no specific term for that kind of tree. Translators in these instances must work together to choose the best word. (It may be a borrowed word from the source language, a modification of a source language word, a combination of words to create a new term, or a generic term like "fruit tree.")
• Communicate clearly by expressing the message in such a way that people in the Target Language culture will be able to understand the meaning that the original author intended to communicate.
• Only provide additional information as needed to accurately communicate the intended message to people who do not share the same context and culture as the recipients of the original content.

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Create Equal Translations

An equal translation communicates any expressive meaning from the source language in an equal way in the target language. Especially notice the forms in the source text that communicate certain kinds of emotions and choose forms in the target language that communicate the same emotions. Examples of some of these forms follow.

Idioms

Definition - An idiom is a group of words that has a meaning that is different from what one would understand from the meanings of the individual words. Whenever possible, determine the meaning of idioms, proverbs, and figures of speech and translate them with expressions in your language that have the same meaning.

Description - Usually idioms cannot be translated literally into another language. The meaning of the idiom has to be expressed in a way that is natural in the other language. When an equal idiom or figure of speech works to express the same meaning, this is the preferred translation option. However, the primary goal is to carry the same sense and emotion over into the translation. If that is better accomplished without the use of idiom that also is acceptable.

Here are three translations, all with the same meaning, of Acts 18:6:

• "Your blood be upon your heads! I am innocent." (RSV)
• "If you are lost, you yourselves must take the blame for it! I am not responsible." (GNB)
• "If God punishes you, it is because of you, not me!" (TFT)

These are all accusations of guilt. Some are using idioms with the word "blood" or "lost," while the third is more direct using the word "punishes." In order for your translation to be equal, it must also express an accusation in an emotional way, and may use an idiom, as long as both the form of the accusation and the idiom are appropriate for the target language and culture.

Figures of Speech

Definition - A figure of speech is a special way of saying something in order to catch the attention or express an emotion about what is said.

Description - The meaning of a figure of speech as a whole is different from the normal meaning of the individual words.

Here are some examples:

• I was shattered! The speaker was not literally broken, but he felt very bad.
• He closed his ears to what I was saying. Meaning, "he chose to not listen to what I was saying."
• The wind moaned in the trees. This means that the wind blowing through the trees sounded like a person moaning.
• The whole world came to the meeting. Everyone in the world did not attend the meeting. Most likely there were many people at the meeting.

Each language uses different figures of speech. Make sure you can:

• Recognize that a figure of speech is being used.
• Recognize the purpose of the figure of speech.
• Recognize the real meaning of the figure of speech.

It is the real meaning of the whole figure of speech that should be translated into your language, not the meaning of the individual words. Once you understand the real meaning, you can choose an expression in the target language that communicates that same meaning and emotion.

(For more information, see the Figures of Speech information.)

Rhetorical Questions

Definition - Rhetorical questions are another way that the speaker captures the attention of the reader.

Description - Rhetorical questions are a type of question that does not expect an answer or ask for information. They usually express some kind of emotion and can be intended as a rebuke, a warning, to express surprise, or irony.

See, for example, Matthew 3:7: "You offspring of vipers, who warned you to flee from the wrath that is coming?"

Here no answer is expected. The speaker is not asking for information; he is rebuking his hearers. It does no good to warn these people of God's wrath, because they refuse the only way to escape it: to repent of their sins.

You may need to restate this rhetorical question as a statement when you translate, if your language does not use rhetorical questions in this way. But remember, be sure to keep the same purpose and meaning, and communicate the same emotion as the original rhetorical question had. If your language communicates the purpose, meaning, and emotion of a rhetorical question with a different kind of figure of speech, then use that figure of speech.

(see Rhetorical Questions)

Exclamations

Definition - Languages use exclamations to communicate emotion. Sometimes the exclamation word or words do not have meaning other than the expression of emotion, such as the words "alas" or "wow" in English.

See, for example, 1 Samuel 4:8: Woe to us! Who will protect us from the strength of these mighty gods? (ULB)

The Hebrew word translated as "woe" here expresses strong emotion about something bad happening. If possible, try to find an exclamation in your language that communicates this same emotion.

Poetry

Definition - One of the purposes of poetry is to express emotion about something.

Description - Poetry does this through many different ways that can be different in different languages. These ways can include everything discussed so far, such as figures of speech and exclamations. Poetry might also use grammar differently than ordinary speech, or use wordplays or words with similar sounds or certain rhythms to convey emotion.

See, for example, Psalm 36:5: Your covenant faithfulness, Yahweh, reaches to the heavens; your loyalty reaches to the clouds. (ULB)

This verse of poetry repeats a similar idea in two lines, which is good Hebrew poetic style. Also, there are no verbs in the Hebrew original, so the ULB translation supplies the word "reaches" in both lines. Poetry in your language may have different things that mark it as poetry. When you are translating poetry, try to use the forms of your language that communicate to the reader that this is poetry, and that communicate the same emotions that the source poem is trying to communicate.

Remember: Communicate the feelings and attitudes of the original text. Translate them into forms that communicate in a similar way in your language. Consider how that meaning can best be Accurately, Clearly, Equally, and Naturally Expressed in the Target Language.

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Create Collaborative Translations

Bible translations that are collaborative are those that have been translated by a group of speakers of the same language. To ensure that your translation is of the highest quality, work together with other believers who speak your language to translate, check, and distribute the translated content.

Collaboration occurs through many ways during the translation process. First as the team gathers from different churches and villages, they commit to collaborate on the project as a whole. Secondly, as the team tests their translation by asking others to read or listen to it and provide feedback, the collaboration continues. In Level 2 and Level 3 checking, specific leaders and lay-Christians are invited to participate in checking the quality of the translation. This again increases collaboration.

Whenever possible the translation team should endeavor to include other Christians from their language group in the translation process, so as to continue and expand on the collaborative nature of the project.

(You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/guidelines_collab.)

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Create Ongoing Translations

Bible translations should be ongoing. Share the translation with others to see if they understand the meaning of the message. Improve your translation with their input. Revising a translation to increase understanding and accuracy is always a good idea. Whenever someone has a good idea for making the translation better, you should edit the translation to incorporate that change. When you use translationStudio or other electronic text editors, you can keep this process of revision and improvement ongoing.

• Reviewers are needed who can read the translation and point to text that needs revision.
• Have people read the translation or listen to a recording of the translation. This will help you know if the translation has the same impact in your community that it had among the original audience (for example: giving comfort, encouragement, or guidance).
• Continue to make corrections to the translation that will make it more accurate, more clear, and more natural. The goal is always to make it communicate the same meaning as the source text.

Remember, encourage people to review the translation and to give you ideas for making it better. Talk to other people about these ideas. When several people agree that these are good ideas, then make these changes in the translation. In this way, the translation will get better and better.

(You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/guidelines_ongoing.)

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Before Translating

Choosing a Translation Team

Importance of a Translation Team

Translating the Bible is a significant task that takes a team of people to accomplish. It is important when developing a team to consider the skills and roles of those needed.

Church Leaders

Before starting a translation project, contact as many churches and church networks as possible and encourage them to become a part of the translation and even to send some people for the translation team. They should be consulted and asked for their input into the translation project, its goals, and its process.

Translation Team

These are the people who will do the work of making the translation drafts. They need to be people who are native speakers of the target language, who can read the source language (the Gateway Language) very well, and who are respected in the community for their Christian character. For more details about these things, see Translator Qualifications.

As well as making the first drafts, these people will form the core of the translation team that will check each other's work, check the translation with the language community, and receive the suggestions for revision from the level 2 and level 3 checkers. After each review or checking session, these translators are responsible to make the changes to the translation that are necessary so that it communicates what it should in the best way. So they will revise the translation many times.

Typists

Typists are only a necessary part of teams working on written translation. If the project is an oral translation, a person trained in the use of translation Recorder will be necessary in place of the typist. If the translators themselves are not inputting the translation draft into a computer or tablet, then someone else on the team needs to do this. This needs to be someone who can type without making a lot of errors. This person also needs to know how to use punctuation marks correctly and consistently. This person may also need to type the revisions and corrections to the translation after each round of checking. Often the translators are also the typists, or one translator is assigned the role of typist, so these two roles can converge into one.

Translation Testers

Some people need to test the translation with members of the language community to make sure that the translation is clear and sounds natural in the target language. Usually these are the translators, but they could be other people. These testers need to read the translation to people and then ask them questions to see how they are understanding it. For a description of this task, see Other Methods.

Checkers

The people who are selected to check the translation for accuracy should be people who already know the Bible well in the source language. They should be able to read well in the source language. They will be comparing the translation to the source Bible, to make sure that the translation communicates everything that is in the source Bible. They should be people who are interested in the translation work and who have time to do a good job of checking. It is good if these people can include members of the different church groups who speak the target language and who will use the translation. The level 2 checkers should be leaders in their local church. The level 3 checkers should be leaders of groups of churches, or respected very widely in the language area. Since many of these people are very busy, it may work best to send different books or chapters to different people, and not burden one or two people with the whole translation.

Additionally, some checkers should come from the average Christian community--those who are believers, but are not part of the translation team. These checkers will work with the translation testers (see above) to answer comprehension questions and give feedback on the readability and clarity of the text.

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Translator Qualifications

Qualifications of the Translator or Translation Team

The leaders of the church networks that will be involved in the translation should consider the following questions when choosing the people who will be members of the translation team. These questions will help the church and community leaders know if the people that they choose will be able to successfully translate the Bible or the Open Bible Stories.

1. Is the person known to be a very good speaker of the target language? It is important that the person speak the target language very well.

   • Can this person read and write the target language well?
   • Has the person been living in the language community for much of his or her life? Someone who has lived away from the language area for a very long period of time might have difficulty making a natural translation.
   • Do people respect the way this person speaks their own language?
   • What is the age and local language background of each translator? It is usually good to have people from different places in the language area and of different ages, because people of different places and ages might use the language differently. These people then need to agree on a way to say things that sound good to all of them.

2. Does the person have a very good understanding of the source language?

   • What level of education have they received, and how have they obtained skills in the source language?
   • Does the Christian community recognize that this person has adequate skills to speak the source language and an education sufficient to use the Notes or other exegetical helps provided?
   • Can the person read and write the source language with fluency and understanding?

3. Is the person respected in the community as a follower of Christ? The person must be humble and willing to listen to suggestions or corrections from others concerning his or her translation work. The person must be willing to learn from others.

   • How long have they been a Christian, and are they in good standing with their Christian community?
   • How has this person shown himself to be committed to Christ as a disciple? Bible translation is difficult, involves many revisions, and requires dedication to the task.

After the translators have been working for awhile, the leaders will need to make sure that they are working well. They may ask:

• Does their work meet the expectations of their fellow translators and local church leaders? (Has the translator been willing to work with others in testing and checking their translation?)

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Choosing What to Translate

What Should I Translate First?

At some point, the translation team will have to figure out what they should translate first, or, if they have already done some translation, what they should translate next. There are several factors that need to be considered:

• What does the church want to be translated?
• How experienced is the translation team?
• How much biblical content has been translated into this language?

The answers to these questions are all important. But remember this:

Translation is a skill that grows with experience.

Because translation is a skill that grows, it is wise to start translating content that is less complicated so that the translators can learn the skill while translating something simple.

Translation Difficulty

In general, books that have more abstract, poetic, and theologically loaded terms and ideas are more difficult to translate. Books that are more narrative and concrete are generally easier to translate. Following is a break down of books from most difficult to most simple. This is a slightly modified rendering of Wycliffe Bible Translator's list.

Difficulty Level 4 (Most Difficult to Translate)

• Old Testament
  • Job, Psalms, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel
• New Testament
  • Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, Hebrews, 1-2 Peter, and 1 John

Difficulty Level 3

• Old Testament
  • Leviticus, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephanaiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
• New Testament
  • John, 1-2 Corinthians, 1-2 Thessalonians, Jude, Philippians

Difficulty Level 2

• Old Testament
  • Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
• New Testament
  • Matthew, Mark, 1-2 Timothy, Titus, James, 2-3 John, Revelation

Difficulty Level 1

• Old Testament
  • Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, 1-2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Jonah
• New Testament
  • Luke, Acts, Philemon

Conclusion

Ultimately, the church needs to decide what they want to translate, and in what order. But because translation is a skill that improves with use, and because the translation and checking teams can learn so much about translating the Bible as they go, we highly recommend starting with the level one books and moving up to work on the more difficult ones.

The church will need to decide where to start; do they want to focus on getting the New Testement completed first, or begin with the Old Testament. If they want to begin where the Scripture begins, they may choose to start with Genesis which is a level 2 difficulty. Even though we recommend starting at level one, other factors will weigh into the decision. Most importantly, as translators work through the books, they will grow in their abilities and may recognize that the first books they translated need to be updated and revised before being widely published.

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Choosing a Source Text

Factors to Consider for a Source Text

When choosing a source text, there are a number of factors that must be considered:

• Statement of Faith - Is the text in line with the Statement of Faith?
• Translation Guidelines - Is the text in line with the Translation Guidelines?
• Language - Is the text in a suitable language that translators and checkers understand well?
• Copyrights, Licensing, and Source Texts - Is the text released under a license that gives sufficient legal freedom?
• Source Texts and Version Numbers - Is the text the latest, most updated version?
• The Original and Source Languages - Does the translation team understand the difference between source languages and original languages?
• Original Manuscripts - Does the translation team understand about Original Manuscripts and Textual Variants?

It is important that the leaders of the churches in the language group agree that the source text is a good one. There are translations of the Bible at bibleineverylanguage.org that have been translated specifically for use as source text to translate into other languages.

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The Unlocked Bibles

The Unlocked Literal Bible is ... It is provided to be used as a source text.

The Unlocked Dynamic Bible is ... It is provided

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Copyrights, Licensing, and Source Texts

Why Is It Important?

When choosing a source text from which to do a translation, considering the copyright/licensing issue is important for two reasons. First, if you translate from a copyrighted work without prior permission, you are breaking the law because translation is a right reserved for the owner of the content. In some places, copyright infringement is a criminal offense and may be prosecuted by the government without the copyright holder's consent! Second, when a translation is done from a copyrighted work, the translation is the intellectual property of the copyright holder of the source text. They maintain all the rights of the translation just as they do with the source text. For these and other reasons, bibleineverylanguage.org will only post and support distribution of translations that are not in violation of copyright law.

What License Do We Use?

All content published by bibleineverylanguage.org is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License (CC BY-SA) (see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). We believe this license is the greatest help to the church because it is permissive enough to allow translation and other derivatives to be made from it, but not so permissive that those derivatives can be locked up under restrictive licenses. For a complete discussion on this issue, read The Christian Commons (see http://thechristiancommons.com/).

What Source Texts Can Be Used?

Source texts can be used if they are in the public domain or are available under one of the following licenses, which permit translated work to be released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License:

• CC0 Public Domain Dedication (CC0) (see http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/)
• CC Attribution (CC BY) (see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/)
• CC Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) (see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)
• Works released under the Free Translate License (see http://ufw.io/freetranslate/)

For all other works in question, please contact help@door43.org.

Note:

• All source texts that appear as source texts in translationStudio have been reviewed and are legal for use by anyone as a source text.
• Before anything is published by bibleineverylanguage.org, the source text must be reviewed and available under one of the licenses listed above. Please check your source text before you start translating to avoid being unable to have your translation published.

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Communication Modes and Media

Communication Modes in the Translation Process

Translation teams and the church will need to determine what mode of communication they will use as they do their translation work. Three modes that teams use are writing, speaking, and signing.

• Writing - Translators either type their translation into a computer program or write their translation on paper for someone else to type it.
• Speaking - Translators speak their translation into an audio recorder. This method is very helpful for translators who do not write. See http://translationrecorder.com
• Signing - Translators sign their translation on video. See https://bibleineverylanguage.org/processes/dot/.

Communication Media in the Translation Products

Translation teams and the church will need to determine what media to use for their translation products. Three media that teams use are print, audio recording, and video recording. (Video recording is primarily for Deaf communities.)

• Books - This is especially good in language communities that already have a writing system and people who use it.
• Audio Recordings - This is very helpful in language communities that have people who either do not read well or who learn best by listening.
• Video Recordings - This is especially helpful for Deaf communities who use a sign language.

In order to determine what translation products to make available, the teams and church need to consider the following:
* What is the literacy level of the mother-tongue speakers? * What medium does the language community usually use to educate and train people? * What medium is the church community most likely to want and use?

Flexibility

Written translations can be made available digitally and in print.

Both translators who use writing and those who translate orally may make audio recordings for the people to use. Those who translate orally refine their audio recordings and make them available to the community. Those who use writing make the audio recording by reading aloud what they have written.

Also if the translators translate orally, people who write can type the translation so that it can be produced as a book.

Deaf teams typically use video to translate the Bible. However Deaf communities who want the Bible written in their sign language can also use a system of writing such as SignWriting. (See: http://www.signwriting.org)

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About the Bible

The Original and Source Languages

The Text in the Original Language is the most Accurate

Definition - The original language is the language in which a Bible text was initially written.

Description - The original language of the New Testament is Greek. The original language of most of the Old Testament is Hebrew. However, the original language of some parts of the books of Daniel and Ezra is Aramaic. The original language is always the most accurate language from which to translate a passage.

The source language is the language from which the translation is being made. If a translator is translating the Bible from the original languages, then the original language and the source language for his translation are the same. However, only people who have spent many years studying the original languages understand them and can use them as a source language. For that reason, most translators use Bibles that have been translated into a language of wider communication as their source language text.

If you are translating from a language of wider communication, it is a good idea to have someone who has studied the original languages compare the meaning in the target language translation with the meaning in the original language to make sure that the meaning is the same. Another way to make sure that the meaning of the target language translation is accurate is to check the translation with translation helps that have been written by people who know the original languages. These would include Bible commentaries and dictionaries, as well as the Translation Notes, translationWords definitions, and translationQuestions with their answers.

The Text in the Source Language may not be Accurate

If the translator does not understand the original language, he will have to use a language of wider communication as a source language. The meaning in the source may be correct, depending on how carefully it was translated from the original. But it is still a translation, so it is a step away from the original and is not quite the same. In some cases, the source may have actually been translated from another source, rather than from the original, putting it two steps away from the original.

Consider the example below. A translator uses a Swahili New Testament as the source for a new target language translation. However, the particular Swahili Bible version he is using was actually translated from English — not directly from the Greek (the original language of the NT). So it is possible that some of the meaning has changed in the chain of translation from the original to the target languages.

The only way to make sure the translation is as accurate as possible is to compare the new translation with the original languages. Where this is not possible, use the ULB as the source text, along with other Bible translations that were translated from the original languages, and use resources such as the Translation Notes, Translation Questions and Translation Words to check your work.

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Original Manuscripts

The Writing of the Original Manuscripts

The Bible was written many hundreds of years ago by God's prophets and apostles as God directed them to write it. The people of Israel spoke Hebrew, so most of the Old Testament books were written in Hebrew. When they lived as strangers in Assyria and Babylon, they learned to speak Aramaic, so some later parts of the Old Testament were written in Aramaic.

About three hundred years before Christ came, Greek became the language of wider communication. Many people in Europe and the Middle East spoke Greek as a second language. So the Old Testament was translated into Greek. When Christ came, many people in those areas of the world still spoke Greek as a second language, and the New Testament books were all written in Greek.

Back then there were no printers, so the authors wrote these books by hand. These were the original manuscripts. Those who copied these manuscripts also did so by hand. These were also manuscripts. These books are extremely important, so the copiers got special training and were very careful to try to copy them accurately.

Over hundreds of years, people made thousands of copies of the Bible books. The manuscripts that the authors originally wrote have all been lost or fallen apart, so we do not have them. But we do have many of the copies that were written by hand long ago. Some of these copies have survived for many hundreds and even thousands of years.

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Structure of the Bible

The Bible is made up of 66 "books." Although they are called "books," they vary greatly in length and the shortest ones are only a page or two long. The Bible has two main parts. The first part was written first and is called the Old Testament. The second part was written later and is called the New Testament. The Old Testament has 39 books and the New Testament has 27 books. (Some of the books in the New Testament are letters to people.)

Each book is divided into chapters. Most books have more than one chapter, but Obadiah, Philemon, 2 John, 3 John, and Jude each have only one chapter. All the chapters are divided into verses.

When we want to refer to a verse, we first write the name of the book, then the chapter, and then the verse. For example "John 3:16" means the book of John, chapter 3, verse 16.

When we refer to two or more verses that are next to each other, we put a line between them. "John 3:16-18" means John, chapter 3, verses 16, 17, and 18.

When we refer to verses that are not next to each other, we use commas to separate them. "John 3:2, 6, 9" means John chapter 3, verses 2, 6, and 9.

After the chapter and verse numbers, we put the abbreviation for the translation of the Bible that we used. In the example below, "ULB" stands for the Unlocked Literal Bible.

In this manual we use this system to tell where portions of scripture come from. However, this does not mean that the whole verse or set of verses is shown. The text below comes from Judges, chapter 6, verse 28, but it is not the whole verse. The verse has more at the end. In this manual we only show the part of the verse that we want to talk about.

In the morning when the men of the town got up, the altar of Baal was broken down ... (Judges 6:28 ULB)

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Chapter and Verse Numbers

Description

When the books of the Bible were first written, there were no breaks for chapters and verses. People added these later, and then others numbered the chapters and verses to make it easier to find particular parts of the Bible. Since more than one person did this, there are different numbering systems used in different translations. If the numbering system in the ULB is different from the numbering system in another Bible that you use, you will probably want to use the system from that Bible.

Reasons this is a translation issue

People who speak your language may also use a Bible written in another language. If that Bible and your translation use different chapter and verse numbers, it will be hard for people to know which verse someone is talking about when they say a chapter and verse number.

Examples from the Bible

¹⁴But I hope to see you soon, and we will speak face to face. ¹⁵ May peace be with you. The friends greet you. Greet our friends there by name. (3 John 1:14-15 ULB)

Since 3 John has only one chapter, some versions do not mark the chapter number. In the ULB and UDB it is marked as chapter 1. Also, some versions do not divide verses 14 and 15 into two verses. Instead they mark it all as verse 14.

A psalm of David, when he fled from Absalom his son.

¹Yahweh, how many are my enemies! (Psalm 3:1 ULB)

Some of the psalms have an explanation before them. In some versions the explanation is not given a verse number, as in the ULB and UDB. In other versions the explanation is verse 1, and the actual psalm starts with verse 2.

... and Darius the Mede received the kingdom when he was about sixty-two years old. (Daniel 5:31 ULB)

In some versions this is the last verse of Daniel 5. In other versions this is the first verse of Daniel 6.

Translation Strategies

1. If the people who speak your language have another Bible that they use, number the chapters and verses the way it does. Read the instructions on how to mark verses in the translationStudio APP.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

If the people who speak your language have another Bible that they use, number the chapters and verses the way it does.

The example below is from 3 John 1. Some Bibles mark this text as verses 14 and 15, and some mark it all as verse 14. You may mark the verse numbers as your other Bible does.

• ¹⁴But I hope to see you soon, and we will speak face to face. ¹⁵May peace be with you. The friends greet you. Greet our friends there by name. (3 John 1:14-15 ULB)
  • ¹⁴But I hope to see you soon, and we will speak face to face. May peace be with you. The friends greet you. Greet our friends there by name. (3 John 14)

Next is an example from Psalm 3. Some Bibles do not mark the explanation at the beginning of the psalm as a verse, and others mark it as verse 1. You may mark the verse numbers as your other Bible does.

• A psalm of David, when he fled from Absalom his son.
  ¹Yahweh, how many are my enemies!
  Many have risen against me.
  ²Many say about me,
  "There is no help for him from God." Selah
  • ¹A psalm of David, when he fled from Absalom his son.
    ²Yahweh, how many are my enemies!
    Many have risen against me.
    ³Many say about me,
    "There is no help for him from God." Selah

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Types of Translation

Form and Meaning

Defining Form & Meaning

Two of the major terms used in translating text are "form" and "meaning." These terms are used in special ways in Bible translation. They have the following definitions:

• Form - The structure of the language as it appears on the page or as it is spoken. "Form" refers to the way that the language is arranged-it includes the words, the word order, the grammar, idioms, and any other features of the structure of the text.
• Meaning - The underlying idea or concept that the text is trying to communicate to the reader or hearer. A speaker or writer can communicate the same meaning by using different forms of the language, and different people can understand different meanings from hearing or reading the same language form. In this way you can see that form and meaning are not the same thing.

An Example

Let's consider an example from normal life. Suppose a friend sent you the note below:

• "I am having a very difficult week. My mother was sick and I spent all of my money to take her to the doctor and to buy medicine for her. I do not have anything left. My employer will not pay me until next weekend. I do not know how I am going to make it through the week. I do not even have money to buy food."

The Meaning

Why do you think the friend sent this note? Just to tell you about his week? Probably not. His true intention was more likely to tell you:

• "I would like you to give me money."

That is the primary meaning of the note that the sender wanted to communicate to you. It is not a report, but a request. However, it would be rude in some cultures to ask for money so directly-even from a friend. Therefore, he adjusted the form of the note to fill out the request and help you to understand his need. He wrote in a culturally acceptable way that presented his need for money but did not obligate you to respond. He explained why he had no money (his sick mother), that his need was only temporary (until he is paid), and that his situation was desperate (no food). In other cultures, a more direct form of request might be more appropriate to communicate this meaning.

The Form

In this example, the form is the entire text of the note. The meaning is "I would like you to give me money!"

We use these terms in a similar way. Form will refer to the entire text of the verses that we are translating. Meaning will refer to the idea or ideas that the text is trying to communicate. The best form for communicating a certain meaning will be different in different languages and cultures.

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Literal Translations

Definition

Literal translations try to reproduce, as far as possible, the form of the source text.

Other Names

Literal translations are also called:

• form-based
• word-for-word
• modified literal

Form Over Meaning

A literal translation is one that focuses on reproducing the form of the source text in the target text, even if the meaning changes, or is hard to understand, as a result. An extreme version of a literal translation would be to replace each word in the source language with an equivalent word from the target language. Because of differences in grammar between languages, the target language audience would probably not understand this kind of translation. Some translators of the Bible believe that they should keep the word order of the source text in the target text and only substitute target language words for source language words. They believe that this shows respect for the source text as God's word. But in fact this kind of translation keeps people from understanding God's word. God wants people to understand his word, so it shows the greatest respect for the Bible and for God to translate the Bible so that people can understand it.

Weaknesses of Literal Translation

Literal translations usually contain the following problems:

• foreign words that are not understood by the target audience.
• word order that is strange or awkward in the target language.
• idioms that are not used or understood in the target language.
• names of objects that do not exist in the target culture.
• descriptions of customs that are not understood in the target culture.
• paragraphs that have no logical connections in the target language.
• stories and explanations that do not make sense in the target language.
• implied information is left out that is necessary for understanding the intended meaning.

When to Translate Literally

The only time to translate literally is when translating Gateway Language Materials, such as the ULB, that will be used by Other Language translators. The purpose of the ULB is to show the translator what is in the original. Even so, the ULB is not strictly literal. It is a modified literal translation that uses the target language grammar so that readers can understand it. For the places where the ULB uses the original expressions in the Bible that may be difficult to understand, we have provided the Translation Notes to explain them.

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Word-for-Word Substitution

Definition

A word-for-word substitution is the most literal form of translation. It is not the best choice for doing good translations. A word-for-word translation simply substitutes an equivalent word in the target language for each word in the source language.

In word-for-word translations

• The focus is on one word at a time.
• The natural sentence structure, phrase structures and figures of speech of the target language are ignored.
• The process of word-for-word translation is very simple.
  • The first word in the source text is translated by an equivalent word.
  • Then the next word is done. This continues until the verse is translated.
• The word-for-word approach is attractive because it is so simple. However, it results in a poor quality translation.

Word-for-word substitution results in translations that are awkward to read. They are often confusing and give the wrong meaning or even no meaning at all. You should avoid doing this type of translation. Here are some examples:

Word Order

Here is an example of Luke 3:16 in the ULB:

John answered by saying to them all, "As for me, I baptize you with water, but someone is coming who is more powerful than I, and I am not worthy even to untie the strap of his sandals. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire."

That translation is clear and easy to understand. But suppose the translators had used the word-for-word method. What would the translation be like?

Here, translated in English, are the words in the same order as the original Greek.

answered saying to all the John I indeed with water baptize you he comes but who mightier than I of whom not I am worthy untie the strap of the sandals of him he you will baptize with spirit holy and fire

This translation is awkward and does not make sense in English.

Look at the ULB version above again. The English ULB translators did not keep the original Greek word order. They moved words around in the sentence to fit the rules of English grammar. They also changed some of the phrasing. For example, the English ULB says, "John answered by saying to them all," rather than "John answered to all saying." They used different words in a different order to make the text sound natural so that it could successfully communicate the original meaning.

The translation must communicate the same meaning as the Greek text. In this example, the ULB is a much better English translation than the awkward word-for-word version.

Range of Word Meanings

In addition, word-for-word substitution usually does not take into account that most words in all languages have a range of meanings. In any one passage, usually the writer had only one of those meanings in mind. In a different passage, he may have had a different meaning in mind. But in word-for-word translations, usually only one meaning is chosen and used throughout the translation.

For example, the Greek word "aggelos" can refer to a human messenger or to an angel.

This is he of whom it is written, 'See, I am sending my messenger before your face, who will prepare your way before you.' (Luke 7:27)

Here the word "aggelos" refers to a human messenger. Jesus was talking about John the Baptist.

... the angels had gone away from them into heaven ... (Luke 2:15)

Here the word "aggelos" refers to angels from heaven.

A word-for-word translation process might use the same word in both verses, even though it is used to refer to two different kinds of beings. This would be confusing to the reader.

Figures of Speech

Finally, figures of speech are not conveyed correctly in a word-for-word translation. Figures of speech have meanings that are different from the individual words that they are made up of. When they are translated word-for-word, the meaning of the figure of speech is lost. Even if they are translated so that they follow the normal word order of the target language, readers will not understand their meaning. See the Figures of Speech page to learn how to correctly translate them.

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Problems with Literal Translations

The meaning of forms change

Literal translations keep the form of the source text in the target text. Some translators might want to do this because, as we saw in the teaching module "The Importance of Form," the form of a text affects the meaning of the text. However, we must keep in mind that people from different cultures understand the meaning of forms differently. In different cultures, the same form may be understood in very different ways. Therefore it is not possible to protect the meaning from change by keeping the original forms. The only way to protect the meaning is to change the original form to a new form that communicates the same meaning in the new culture as the old form did in the old culture.

Different languages use different orders of words and phrases

If you keep the source word order in your translation, it will be very difficult, and sometimes impossible, for the people who speak your language to understand it. You must use the natural word order of the target language so that people can understand the meaning of the text.

Different languages use different idioms and expressions

Each language has its own idioms and other expressions, such as words that represent sounds or emotions. In order to express the meaning of these things, you must choose an idiom or expression that has that same meaning in the target language, not just translate each word. If you just translate each word, the idiom or expression will have the wrong meaning.

Some terms do not have equivalents in other cultures

The Bible contains many terms for things that no longer exist, such as ancient weights (stadia, cubit), money (denarius, stater) and measures (hin, ephah). Animals in Scripture may not exist in some parts of the world (fox, camel). Other words may be unknown in some cultures (snow, circumcision). It is not possible to simply substitute equivalent words for these terms in those situations. The translator must find another way to communicate the original meaning.

The Bible was intended to be understood

The testimony of the Scriptures themselves shows that they were meant to be understood. The Bible is written in three languages because the language that God's people used was different in different times. When the Jews returned from exile and no longer remembered Hebrew, the priests translated the Old Testament readings into Aramaic so they could understand (Neh 8:8). Later, when the New Testament was written, it was written in the common Koine Greek, which was the language that most people spoke at that time, rather than Hebrew or Aramaic or even classical Greek, which would have been harder for common people to understand.

These and other reasons demonstrate that God wants people to understand his word. So we know that he wants us to translate the meaning of the Bible, not reproduce the form. The meaning of the Scriptures is more important than the form.

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Meaning-Based Translations

Introduction

We have looked closely at literal translations. Now, we will look at meaning-based translations. These translations are also called:

• meaning-equivalent
• idiomatic
• dynamic

Key Characteristic

The key characteristic of meaning-based translations is that they give priority to translating the meaning over reproducing the form of the source text. That is, they change the form of the text as needed in order to make the meaning clear. The most common types of changes that meaning-based translations make are:

• change word order to match the grammar of the target language.
• replace foreign grammatical structures with natural ones.
• change order of reasons or results to match the normal order of the flow of logic in the target language.
• substitute or explain idioms.
• explain or translate terms from other languages ("Golgotha" = "place of the skull").
• use phrases with simpler words instead of trying to find single word equivalents for difficult or uncommon words in the source text.
• replace terms that are unknown in the target culture with equivalent terms or descriptions.
• replace connecting words that the target language does not use with connecting words that the target language needs.
• substitute target language figures of speech that have the same meaning as the original figures of speech.
• include implied information that is necessary to understand the meaning of the text.
• explain unclear phrases or constructions.

Examples of Meaning-Based Translations

What does a meaning-based translation look like? We will look at how different versions translate the same verse.

In Luke 3:8, John the Baptist rebukes the self-righteous people who came to be baptized.

The Greek text of the first half of the verse is shown below.

Ποιήσατε οὖν καρποὺς ἀξίους τῆς μετανοίας

The English translation in the same order as each Greek word, with some alternative English words to choose from, is below.

Do/make/produce therefore fruits fit/appropriate of the repentance

Literal

A literal translation would usually follow the words and order of the Greek text as closely as possible, such as the following.

Produce fruits that are worthy of repentance ... (Luke 3:8 ULB)

Note that this modified-literal translation retains the words "fruits" and "repentance." The word order is also very similar to the Greek text. This is because the ULB is designed to show translators what is in the original text. But it may not be the natural or clear way to communicate this meaning in your language.

Meaning-Based

Meaning-based translations, on the other hand, are more likely to change the words and order if the translators think it will help to clarify the meaning. Consider these three meaning-based translations:

From the Living Bible:

... prove that you have turned from sin by doing worthy deeds.

From the New Living Translation:

Prove by the way you live that you have repented of your sins and turned to God.

From the Unlocked Dynamic Bible

Do the things that show that you have truly turned away from your sinful behavior!

Notice that these translations have changed the word order to be more natural in English. Also, the word "fruits" no longer appears. In fact, the Living Bible translation uses almost none of the words in the ULB translation. Instead, rather than "fruits," the meaning-based translations refer to "deeds" or to "the way you live." "Fruits" in this verse is used as part of a metaphor. The meaning of "fruits" in this metaphor is "the things that a person does." (See Metaphor.)

So these translations translated the meaning in context, rather than just the words. They also used more understandable phrases such as "turned from sin" or "turned away from your sinful behavior" rather than the single difficult word "repentance," or they explained the word by saying, "repented of your sins and turned to God." The meaning in all of them is the same, but the form is very different. In the meaning-based translations, the translators have attempted to make the meaning clear.

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Translate for Meaning

The Importance of Meaning

The people who wrote the Bible had messages from God that God wanted people to understand. These original writers used the language that their people spoke so that they and their people could understand God's messages. God wants people today to understand those same messages. But people today do not speak those languages that the Bible was written in long ago. So God has given us the task of translating the Bible into the languages that people speak today.

The particular language that people use to communicate God's messages is not important. The specific words that are used are not important. What is important is the meaning that those words communicate. The meaning is the message, not the words or the language. What we must translate, then, is not the words or the forms of the sentences of the source languages, but the meaning.

Look at the pairs of sentences below.

• It rained all night. / Rain fell all night.

• John was very surprised when he heard the news. / The news very much amazed John when he heard it.

• It was a hot day. / The day was hot.

• Peter's house / The house that belongs to Peter

You can see that the meaning of each pair of sentences is the same, even though they use different words. This is the way it is in a good translation. You will use different words than the source text, but you will keep the meaning the same. You will use words that your people understand and use them in a way that is natural for your language. Communicating the same meaning as the source text in a clear and natural way is the goal of translation.

Credits: Example sentences from Barnwell, pp. 19-20, (c) SIL International 1986, used by permission.

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More about Form and Meaning

The Importance of Form

Why Form is Important

The meaning of a text is the most crucial element. However, the form of the text is also very important. It is more than just a "container" for the meaning. It affects the way the meaning is understood and received. So the form itself also has a meaning.

For example, look at the differences in form between two translations of Psalm 9:1-2:

From the New Life Version:

I will give thanks to the Lord with all my heart. I will tell of all the great things You have done. I will be glad and full of joy because of You. I will sing praise to Your name, O Most High.

From the New Revised Standard Version

I will give thanks to the LORD with my whole heart;

I will tell of all your wonderful deeds.

I will be glad and exult in you;

I will sing praise to your name, O Most High.

The first version puts the text into a form that is no different than the form it uses for telling stories. Each line of the Psalm is stated as a separate sentence.

In the second version, the text is arranged as lines of poetry are arranged in the target culture, with each line of the poem on a separate line of the page. Also, the first two lines are joined with a semi-colon, with the second line indented. These things indicate that the two lines are related-they say very similar things. The third and fourth lines also have the same arrangement.

A reader of the second version will know that this Psalm is a poem or a song because of the form that it has, while the reader of the first version may not get that understanding, because it was not communicated through the form of the text. The reader of the first version might be confused, because the Psalm seems to be a song, but it is not presented as one. The words are expressing a joyful emotion. As a translator, you should use the form for expressing a joyful song in your language.

Look also at the form of 2 Samuel 18:33b in the New International Version:

"O my son Absalom! My son, my son Absalom! If only I had died instead of you–O Absalom, my son, my son!"

Someone might say that the meaning contained in this part of the verse is, "I wish that I had died instead of my son Absalom." This does summarize the meaning contained in the words. But the form communicates much more than just that content. The repetition of "my son" so many times, the repetition of the name "Absalom," the expression "O," the wish form "If only...." all communicate a strong emotion of deep anguish on the part of a father who has lost a son. As a translator, you need to translate not just the meaning of the words, but also the meaning of the form. For 2 Samuel 18:33b, it is important that you use a form that communicates the same emotion as contained in the original language.

During the consume step, think about the form of the passage you are reading, and ask why it has that form and not some other one. What attitude or emotion is it communicating? Don't take a long time pondering this, just pay attention to the form as you read.

When you do your self-edit you can ask yourself questions related to form and see if you have accurately captered the meaning of the form. You will also want to do this for your partner translators during the peer-check. If you find these questions hard to answer, go back to the source text and see if you can ansewr them. Then try to figure out what might be missing in the draft that made it hard for you to answer these questions. For example if the draft does not include some form of punctuation that would indicate suprise or horror after the phrase "O my son Absolom!" You may need to go back to the source to see this and then ask what could be used in your langague to carry that meaning.

Questions that might help you to understand the meaning of the form are:

• Who wrote it?
• Who received it?
• In what situation was it written?
• Which words and phrases were chosen and why?
• Are the words very emotional words, or is there anything special about the order of the words?
• What punctuation has been used to indicate emotion?

When we understand the meaning of the form, then we can choose a form that has that same meaning in the target language and culture.

Culture Affects Meaning

The meaning of forms is determined by culture. The same form might have different meanings in different cultures. In translation, the meaning must remain the same, including the meaning of the form. This means that the form of the text must change to fit the culture. The form includes the language of the text, its arrangement, any repetitions, or any expressions that imitate sounds like "O." As you check your drafts, ask yourselves what appropriate punctuation, terms and other aspects of form should be used to express the meaning of the original form.

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Levels of Meaning

Levels of Meaning

A good translation requires that the meaning be the same in the target language as in the source language.

There are many different levels of meaning in any text, including the Bible. These levels include:

• Meaning of words
• Meaning of phrases
• Meaning of sentences
• Meaning of paragraphs
• Meaning of chapters
• Meaning of books

Words Have Meaning

We are used to thinking that the meaning of a text is in the words. But this meaning is controlled by the context that each word is in. That is, the meaning of the individual words is controlled by the levels above it, including the phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. For example, a single word like "give" may have the following possible meanings, depending on the context (the higher levels):

• to grant a gift
• to collapse or break
• to surrender
• to quit
• to concede
• to supply
• to approve

Building the Larger Meaning

The translator must determine what each word means in each context, and then reproduce that same meaning in the translated text. That means that words cannot be translated individually, but only with the meaning that they have when they are combined together with the other words in the phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and chapters in which they form a part. When you are doing the consume step it is important to read the whoel chapter so that you can understand the greater context which provides clues to the meaning of the words and prhases. Additionally, when you are doing the checking steps, remember to compare your draft to the source text as a whole, not just at the level of words but also in the paragraphs and chapters.

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The Translation Process

How to Translate

There are two things to do in translation:

1. Discover the meaning in the source language text--this is initially done during step one: consume, step two: verbalize and step three: chunk.
2. Re-tell the meaning in the target language translation--this is done during step 4: blind draft.
3. The checking steps revisit these two steps several times to confirm meaning and the retelling of that meaning.

Instructions for translation sometimes divide these two things into smaller steps. The graphic below shows how these two fit into the translation process.

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Discovering and Re-telling the Meaning

MAST is a simple process for translation that emphasizes meaning transference. It has eight steps that are specifically designed to help translators understand and then retell the meaning of the text. The first three steps are for discovering the meaning. The fourth step is concerned with retelling the meaning. The final four steps affirm the discovery of meaning and help the translator make sure that the retelling is accurate and natural. Here are the steps:

1. Consume: Read the chapter in the source text, thinking about what it means. Consider the chapter as a whole, noticing its form and style as well as the setting and background. Even as you think of these things, do not get bogged down. This step should only take a few minutes.
2. Verbalize: In the target language express what you just consumed. This is best done to another translator who also speaks the target language. But it is such an important brain process, that if no one is available, it is still essential that the translator do this step by telling it to someone who can't understand his target language or even speaking it out loud to no one in particular. The process of retelling what he read out loud in his heart language helps to transfer its meaning into his memory for later.
3. Chunk: Break down the chapter into its individual meaning packets or workable parts. This step will occur naturally in your mind and should be easy to transfer to paper. The chunks should be as long as needed to cover the meaning of a portion of the story, but not so long that you cannot remember the whole thing. Usually 1-4 verses are contained in a chunk, although with narrative passages it could be longer. Once you have divided the chapter into chunks, review the first chunk doing step one and two again in your head before moving on to step 4. You will do this for each chunk as you work through the rest of the steps.
4. Blind draft: Close the source text and write down from memory the meaning of the chunk you just reviewed. This may seem scary, but if you will force yourself to try, you will realize you remember more than you had at first expected. And whatever you did not remember can be added during the checking steps. This step merely provides the first draft. Writing down what you remember without referencing the source text will help you to write it naturally in your own language. (For more help with steps 1-4, see Make a First Draft)
5. Self-edit: Read your blind draft and compare it to the source text to see if you missed anything. Use the Translation Helps to check your understanding of the form of the text, the historical setting, and the meaning of the text. Have you represented them accurately? Make any necessary changes, additions or deletions. (See Self-Edit)
6. Peer-edit: You will do this step for a translation partner just as another translator on the team will do it for you. Repeat the same process as self-edit but with a partner's draft of a passage. (See Peer-Edit)
7. Key word check: (A key word is a word that is significant for communicating the meaning and theology of the passage.) This check needs to be done with at least two translators. Using the translation Words as a guide, read through the passage and make sure all words in the list are accurately represented in the passage. You may also find other key words in the passage that need to be checked. If you don't understand the meaning of a key word from the list, consult the translation Notes. You may also want to research the meaning using the source text or other translations. It is important that the meaning of the key word is clearly represented. Often these words are absent from target languages. If you have no word in your language that is a fit for one of the key words, you will need to discuss together with the team ways of representing that meaning in your translation. This could include borrowed words, creating a new word, or word phrase, or recreating a word to broaden its meaning. As you do this check, it will hep to make a list of the terms you are using, so you have a reference for checking other passages. This will cut back on future workload and help to maintain consistency. (See Key Word Check)
8. Verse-by-verse check: This final step should be done with three people when possible--the translator and two others from his team. The translator will read their translation one verse at a time, out loud, in the mother tongue. Without using any resources, one partner will listen to the mother tongue translation and verbally translate it into the source language. A second partner will listen to the first partner’s verbal back-translation and compare it to the source text. Each verse should be checked against the source text, using the Translation Notes and Translation Questions as resources to confirm the accuracy and meaningfulness of the passage. The two partners will suggest edits where appropriate. (See Verse-by-Verse Check)

Consistently following the eight steps will help the team develop a translation that is meaning-based, natural, and accurate.

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Make a First Draft

How do I start?

• Pray that God would help you to understand the passage that you are translating and that he would help you to find the best way to communicate that passage in your language. As a team divide the section you are beginning with among you. For example if you are starting with the book of Mark, divide its sixteen chapters up for each translator to take a portion. This division will help ensure that no one is duplicating someone else's work; however, it can serve as a guide and need not be static. In other words, as you progress in the project you may need to rearrange who is doing which parts to help accomodate the speed of each translator.

Consume--the first step of MAST

• If you are translating Open Bible Stories, read the entire story before starting to translate it. If you are translating the Bible, read the entire chapter before you start to translate any part of it. This way you will understand how the part you are translating fits into the larger context, and you will translate it better. This is step 1 of the MAST process and is called "Consume." It should not take longer than five to seven minutes.

Verbalize--the second step of MAST

• Once you have consumed the chapter, verbalize it to a fellow translator. (This step can be done to anyone, even someone who does not speak the language, although it is always best to take turns doing this with other translators on the team.) You will verbalize what you have just read in your mother-tongue. Give a summary of the passage with as much detail as you remember. The person who is listen can give you feedback or reminders when you are done. You may also want to check the text and see if there is anything major you forgot. This process should not take more than a few minutes.

Chunk--The third step of MAST

• After verbalizing the passage you are ready to chunk it into workable parts. (If you are using translation Studio this chunking has been done for you). Break down the chapter into its individual meaning packets. These should be small enough for you to remember easily, but large enough to include at least a full thought. Often these chunks are 2-4 verses. They can be longer in narrative passages. Just look for where your brain naturally takes a break or seperates information and make note of those. Then read over the first chunk of your section so that you are ready to blind draft it.

Blind draft--the fourth step of MAST

• Close your source text and any other resources. This is important because if you are looking at some source in a different language, it will interfere with your ability to write naturally in your mother tongue. Then write a draft from memory of the first chunk in your chapter. Although this can be a stressful step, try to relax and just write everything you remember. Don't worry if you forget something or don't word it eaxctly right. After this step come four checking steps, so you will have opportunity to make corrections, additions, and other edits. This step is about getting the intial draft down in natural, easy-to-read language.

When you have finished these first four steps of the MAST process you have a first draft!

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Translation Resources

Help with Translating

Translators will need to understand the meaning of each Bible passage in order to translate it accurately. The following resources have been created in order to help translators do this: Translation Notes, Translation Words, Translation Questions, and Wycliffe Associates Translation Resources Series.

Translation Notes is a collection of cultural, linguistic, and exegetical notes that help to describe and explain some of the Bible background that the translator needs to know to translate accurately. These notes also inform translators about different ways that they might express the same meaning. The Translation Notes for each book of the Bible have a section about the book, a section about each chapter, and a section about each chunk or verse. See https://door43.org/u/WycliffeAssociates/en_tn/.

Translation Words is a collection of key terms found in Open Bible Stories and the Bible that are important to translate correctly. Each of these words or phrases has a short article written about it as well as cross-references to other places where that term is used in either Open Bible Stories or the Bible. This is to show the translator other ways that the translationWord is used and to ensure that it has been translated correctly in those places, too. See https://door43.org/u/WycliffeAssociates/en_tw.

Translation Questions is a collection of comprehension questions that can be used to check your translation. If you and others from the target language community can correctly answer a question using only the Target Language translation, then this indicates that the information that the question asked about was likely translated accurately. See https://door43.org/u/WycliffeAssociates/en_tq.

Wycliffe Associates Translation Resources Series is a 66-volume set of all of the above resources for each book of the Bible. In addition, each volume has Translation Topics that are addressed in the Translation Notes for that book of the Bible. You can download these to your computer to use off line. See the listings of Old Testament books and New Testament books under ULB Translation Notes on the Bible In Every Language website. https://bibleineverylanguage.org/translations/

Please consult the Translation Notes, Translation Words and Translation Questions when checking your translation!

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How to Use the ULB and UDB

As translators, you can best use the ULB and UDB if you remember the following differences between the ULB and UDB, and if you learn how the target language can best deal with the issues that these differences represent.

Order of Ideas

The ULB tries to present ideas in the same order as they appear in the source text.

The UDB tries to present ideas in an order that is more natural in English, or that follows the order of logic or the order of sequence in time.

When you translate, you should put ideas into an order that is natural in the target language. (see Order of Events)

¹ Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle and set apart for the gospel of God ... ⁷ To all in Rome who are loved by God and called to be his holy people: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. (Romans 1:1,7 ULB)

¹ I, Paul, who serve Christ Jesus, am writing this letter to all of you believers in the city of Rome. (Romans 1:1 UDB)

The ULB shows Paul's style of beginning his letters. He does not say who his audience is until verse 7. However, the UDB follows a style that is much more natural in English and many other languages today.

Implied Information

The ULB often presents ideas that imply or assume other ideas that are important for the reader to understand.

The UDB often makes those other ideas explicit. The UDB does this in order to remind you that you should perhaps do the same in your translation if you think that your audience will need to know this information in order to understand the text.

When you translate, you should decide which of these implied ideas would be understood by your audience without being included. If your audience understands these ideas without including them in the text, then you do not need to make those ideas explicit. Remember also that you might even offend your audience if you needlessly present implied ideas that they would understand anyway. (see Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Jesus said to Simon, "Do not be afraid, because from now on you will catch men." (Luke 5:10 ULB)

But Jesus said to Simon, "Do not be afraid! Until now you gathered in fish, but from now on you will gather in people to become my disciples." (Luke 5:10 UDB)

Here the UDB reminds the reader that Simon was a fisherman by trade. It also makes clear the similarity that Jesus was drawing between Simon's previous work and his future work. In addition, the UDB makes it clear why Jesus wanted Simon to "catch men" (ULB), that is, to lead them "to become my disciples" (UDB).

When he saw Jesus, he fell on his face and begged him, saying, "Lord, if you are willing, you can make me clean." (Luke 5:12 ULB)

When he saw Jesus, he bowed down to the ground in front of him and pleaded with him, "Lord, please heal me, because you are able to heal me if you are willing!" (Luke 5:12 UDB)

Here the UDB makes it clear that the man who had leprosy did not fall to the ground by accident. Instead, he deliberately bowed down to the ground. Also, the UDB makes it clear that he is asking Jesus to heal him. In the ULB, he only implies this request.

Symbolic Actions

Definition - A symbolic action is something that someone does in order to express a certain idea.

The ULB often simply presents the symbolic action with no explanation of what it means. The UDB often presents the meaning expressed by the symbolic action as well.

When you translate, you should decide whether your audience will correctly understand a symbolic action. If your audience will not understand, then you should do as the UDB does. (see Symbolic Action)

The high priest tore his garments ... (Mark 14:63 ULB)

In response to Jesus's words, the high priest was so shocked that he tore his outer garment. (Mark 14:63 UDB)

Here the UDB makes it clear that it was not by accident that the high priest tore his garment. It also makes clear that it was probably only his outer garment that he tore, and that he did so because he wanted to show that he was sad or angry or both.

Because the high priest actually tore his garment, the UDB must, of course, say that he did. However, if a symbolic action never actually took place, you do not have to state that action. Here is such an example:

Present that to your governor! Will he accept you or will he lift up your face?" (Malachi 1:8 ULB)

You would not dare to offer such gifts to your own governor! You know that he would not take them. You know that he would be displeased with you and would not welcome you! (Malachi 1:8 UDB)

Here the symbolic action "lift up someone's face," represented in this way in the ULB, is presented only as its meaning in the UDB: "he would be displeased with you and would not welcome you." It can be presented in this way because Malachi is not actually referring to a particular event that actually took place. He is only referring to the idea represented by that event.

Passive Verb Forms

Both Biblical Hebrew and Greek often use passive verb forms, while many other languages do not have that possibility. The ULB tries to use passive verb forms when the original languages use them. However, the UDB usually does not use these passive verb forms. As a result, the UDB restructures many phrases.

When you translate, you must decide whether the target language can present events or states using a passive expression, as in the following examples. If you cannot use a passive verb form in a particular context, then you may find in the UDB one possible way to restructure the phrase. (see Active or Passive)

Examples from the Bible

For he was amazed, and all who were with him, at the catch of fish which they had taken. (Luke 5:9 ULB)

He said this because he marveled at the huge number of fish that they had caught. All the men who were with him also marveled. (Luke 5:9 UDB)

Here the UDB uses a verb in the active voice "he marveled" instead of the ULB's verb in the passive voice "was amazed."

But the report about him spread even farther, and large crowds of people came together to hear him teach and to be healed of their sicknesses. (Luke 5:15 ULB)

But many people heard about how Jesus had healed the man. The result was that large crowds came to Jesus to hear him teach and to have him heal them from their sicknesses. (Luke 5:15 UDB)

Here the UDB avoids the ULB's passive verb form "to be healed." It does this by restructuring the phrase. It says who the healer is: "to have him [Jesus] heal them."

Metaphors and Other Figures of Speech

Definition - The ULB tries to represent the figures of speech found in the biblical texts as closely as possible.

The UDB often presents the meaning of these ideas in other ways.

When you translate, you will have to decide whether the target language readers will understand a figure of speech with little effort, with some effort, or not at all. If they have to make a great effort to understand, or if they do not understand at all, you will have to present the essential meaning of the figure of speech using other words.

He has made you rich in every way, in all speech and with all knowledge. (1 Corinthians 1:5 ULB)

Christ has given you so many things. He helped you to speak his truth and to know God. (1 Corinthians 1:5 UDB)

Paul uses a metaphor of material wealth, expressed in the word "rich." Even though he immediately explains what he means "in all speech and with all knowledge," some readers might not understand. The UDB presents the idea in a different way, without using the metaphor of material wealth. (see Metaphor)

I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, (Matthew 10:16 ULB)

When I send you out, you will be as defenseless as sheep, among people who are as dangerous as wolves. (Matthew 10:16 UDB)

Jesus uses a simile that compares his apostles going to others as sheep going out among wolves. Some readers might not understand how the apostles would be like sheep while the other people would be like wolves. The UDB clarifies that the apostles would be defenseless, and that their enemies would be dangerous. (see Simile)

You are separated from Christ, all you who are "justified" by the law. You have fallen away from grace. (Galatians 5:4 ULB)

If you expect God to declare you good in his sight because you try to keep the law, you have separated yourself from Christ; God will no longer act kindly toward you. (Galatians 5:4 UDB)

Paul uses irony when he refers to them as being justified by the law. He had already taught them that no one can be justified by the law. The ULB uses quote marks around "justified" to show that Paul did not really believe that they were justified by the law. The UDB translates the same idea by making it clear that it was what the other people believed. (see Irony)

Abstract Expressions

The ULB often uses abstract nouns, adjectives, and other parts of speech, because it tries to closely resemble the biblical texts. The UDB tries not to use such abstract expressions, because many languages do not use abstract expressions.

When you translate, you will have to decide how the target language prefers to present these ideas. (see Abstract Nouns)

He has made you rich in every way, in all speech and with all knowledge. (1 Corinthians 1:5 ULB)

Christ has given you so many things. He helped you in all your speaking and in all your knowledge. (1 Corinthians 1:5 UDB)

Here the ULB expressions "all speech" and "all knowledge" are abstract noun expressions. One problem with them is that readers might not know who is supposed to do the speaking and what they are to speak, or who is doing the knowing and what it is that they know. The UDB answers these questions.

Conclusion

In summary, the ULB will help you translate because it can help you understand to a great degree what form the original biblical texts have. It should be your primary source text. The UDB can help you check what you've translated and improve it because it often makes the ULB text's meaning clear, and also because it can give you various possible ways to make the ideas in the biblical text clear in your own translation.

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Translation Notes

In English, every note that explains a word or phrase from the Unlocked Literal Bible (ULB) starts the same. There is a bullet point, the ULB text is in bold followed by a dash, and then there are translation suggestions or information for the translator. The notes follow this format:

In English, every note that explains a word or phrase from the Unlocked Literal Bible (ULB) starts the same. There is a bullet point, the ULB text is in bold followed by a dash, and then there are translation suggestions or information for the translator. The notes follow this format:

• ULB text - translation suggestion or information for the translator.

Types of Information in Notes

There are many different types of information in the Translation Notes. Understanding the different types of information and the translation suggestions will help the translator make decisions about how to translate the Bible text into their language.

• Definitions - Sometimes you may not know what a word in the ULB means. Simple definitions of words or phrases are added without quotes or sentence format.

• Explanations - Simple explanations about words or phrases are in sentence format.

• Synonyms and Equivalent Phrases - Sometimes the Notes provide a translation suggestion that can replace the word or phrases in the ULB. These replacements can fit into the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence. These are synonyms and equivalent phrases and are written in double-quotes. These mean the same as the text in the ULB.

• Alternate Translations - An alternate translation is a suggested change to the form or content of the ULB because the target language may prefer a different form. The alternate translation should only be used when the ULB form or content is not accurate or natural in your language.

• Alternate Meanings - Some Notes provide Alternate Meanings when a word or phrase can be understood in more than one way. When this happens, the Note will put the most probable meaning first.

• Probable or Possible Meanings - Sometimes Bible scholars do not know for sure, or do not agree on, what a particular phrase or sentence in the Bible means. Some reasons for this include: there are minor differences in the ancient Bible texts, or a word may have more than one meaning or use, or it may not be clear what a word (such as a pronoun) refers to in a particular phrase. In this case, the Note will give the most probable meaning, or will list several possible meanings, with the most probable meaning first.

• Links - There are two types of links in the Translation Notes: links to a Translation Manual topic page and links for repeated words or phrases within the same book.

• Identify Figures of Speech - When there is a Figure of Speech in the ULB text, then the notes will provide an explanation of how to translate that Figure of Speech. Sometimes an Alternate Translation is provided. There will also be a link to the Translation Manual page for additional information and translation strategies to help the translator accurately translate the meaning of that type of Figure of Speech.

• Notes that Identify Indirect and Direct Quotes - There are two kinds of quotations: direct quotation and indirect quotation. When translating a quotation, translators need to decide whether to translate it as a direct quotation or an indirect quotation. These Notes will alert the translator to the choice that needs to be made.

• Notes for Long ULB Phrases - Sometimes there are Notes that refer to a phrase and separate Notes that refer to portions of that phrase. In that case, the Note for the larger phrase is first, and the Notes for its smaller parts follow afterward. In that way, the Notes can give translation suggestions or explanations for the whole as well as each part.

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Connecting Statement and General Information in the Notes

Description

Sometimes, at the top of the list of notes, there are notes that start with Connecting Statement or General Information.

A connecting statement tells how the verss is related to earlier verses. The following are some of the kinds of information in the connecting statements.

• whether this verse is at the beginning, middle, or end of a passage
• who is speaking
• whom the speaker is speaking to

A general information note tells about issues in the verse that cover more than one phrase. The following are some of the kinds of information that appear in a general information statement.

• the person or thing that pronouns refer to
• important background or implied information that is needed to understand the text in the verse
• logical arguments and conclusions

Both types of notes are to help you understand the passage better and be aware of issues that you might need to address in translation.

Examples

Whether this verse is at the beginning, continuation, or end of a passage

¹It came about that when Jesus had finished instructing his twelve disciples, he departed from there to teach and preach in their cities. (Matthew 11:1 ULB)

• General Information: - This is the beginning of a new part of the story where Matthew tells of how Jesus responded to disciples of John the Baptist. (See: Introduction of New Event)

This note alerts you to the beginning of a new part of a story and gives you a link to a page that tells more about new events and issues concerning translating them.

Who is speaking

¹⁷For he was one of us and received his share of the benefits of this ministry." (Acts 1:17 ULB)

• Connecting Statement: - In verse 17 Peter continues his speech to the believers that he began in Acts 1:16.

This note tells you that it is still Peter speaking in verse 17 so you can mark that correctly in your language.

The person or thing that pronouns refer to

²⁰Then Isaiah was very bold when he says, "I was found by those who did not seek me. I appeared to those who did not ask for me." (Romans 10:20 ULB)

• General Information: - Here the words "I" and "me" refer to God.

This note lets you know who the pronouns refer to. You may need to add something so that readers will know that Isaiah is not speaking for himself, but is quoting what God said.

Important background or implied information

²⁷He arose and went. Behold, there was a man from Ethiopia, a eunuch of great authority under Candace, queen of the Ethiopians. He was in charge of all her treasure. He had come to Jerusalem to worship. (Acts 8:27 ULB)

• General Information: - This verse gives background information about the man from Ethiopia. (See: Backgrounds)

This note alerts you to some background information so you can use your language's ways of showing this. The note includes a link to the page about background information so you can learn more about how to translate that kind of information.

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Notes with Definitions

Description

Sometimes you may not know what a word in the ULB means. The notes may have a definition or a description of the word or phrase to help you understand what it means.

Translation Notes Examples

Simple definitions of words or phrases are added without quotes or sentence format. Here are examples:

It is like children playing in the marketplace ... (Matthew 11:16 ULB)

• marketplace - a large, open-air area where people buy and sell items

The garments that they must make are ... a turban, and a sash. (Exodus 28:4 ULB)

• turban - a tall head covering made from cloth wrapped around the head several times
• sash - a piece of cloth that people wear around their waist or across their chest

Translation principles

• Use words that are already part of your language if possible.
• Keep expressions short if possible.
• Represent God's commands and historical facts accurately.

Translation Strategies

See Translate Unknowns for more information on translating words or phrases that are not known in your language.

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Notes that Explain

Description

Sometimes you may not know what a word or phrase means in the ULB, and it may also be used in the UDB. In this case, it will be explained in the notes. These explanations are meant to help you understand the word or phrase. Do not translate the explanations into your Bible. Use them to help you understand the meaning so you can translate the Bible text correctly.

Translation Notes Examples

Simple explanations about words or phrases are written as full sentences. They begin with a capital letter and end with a period (".").

The fishermen had gotten out of them and were washing their nets.(Luke 5:2 ULB)

• washing their nets - They were cleaning their fishing nets in order to use them again to catch fish.

If you did not know that fishermen used nets to catch fish, you might wonder why the fishermen were cleaning their nets. This explanation can help you choose good words for "were washing" and "nets."

So they motioned to their partners in the other boat ... (Luke 5:7 ULB)

• motioned - They were too far from shore to call so they made gestures, probably waving their arms.

This note can help you understand what kind of motion the people made. It was a motion that people would be able to see from a distance. This will help you choose a good word or phrase for "motioned."

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Notes with Synonyms and Equivalent Phrases

Description

Some Notes provide a translation suggestion that can replace the word or phrase that they quote from the ULB. These replacements can fit into the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence. These are synonyms and equivalent phrases and are written in double-quotes. These mean the same as the text in the ULB. This kind of Note can help you to think of other ways to say the same thing, in case the word or phrase in the ULB does not seem to have a natural equivalent in your language.

Translation Notes Examples

Make ready the way of the Lord ... (Luke 3:4 ULB)

• the way - "the path" or "the road"

In this example, the words "the path" or the words "the road" can replace the words "the way" in the ULB. You can decide whether it is natural to say "way," "path," or "road" in your language.

Deacons, likewise, should be dignified, not double-talkers. (1 Timothy 3:8 ULB)

• Deacons, likewise - "Deacons, like overseers"

In this example, the words "Deacons, like overseers" can replace the words "Deacons, likewise" in the ULB. You, as the translator, can decide what is natural for your language.

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Notes with Alternate Translations

Description

Sometimes if people try to translate a sentence using the same form as the ULB, it may result in a wrong meaning, or it may be unclear or unnatural in their language. So some translation notes have the words “Alternate translation” followed by one or more translations. These translations express the same meaning as the ULB, but with a different form. If following the form of the ULB would not give the correct meaning in a clear and natural way, translators may use the alternate translations to help them think of ways of expressing the idea clearly in their own language.

The alternate translation suggestion may involve, for example, stating implicit information clearly, changing passive voice to active, or rewording rhetorical questions as statements. The notes often explain why there is an alternate translation and have a link to a page that explains the topic.

Translation Notes Examples

Making Implicit Information Clear

... it is a law of the Medes and Persians, that no decree or statute that the king issues can be changed. (Daniel 6:15 ULB)

• no decree...can be changed - An additional sentence may be added here to aid in understanding. Alternate translation: "no decree...can be changed. So they must throw Daniel into the pit of lions." (See: Explicit)

The additional sentence shows what the speaker wanted the king to understand from his reminder that the king's decrees and statues cannot be changed. Translators may need to state some things clearly in the translation that the original speaker or writer left unstated or implicit.

Passive to Active

... to him who blasphemes against the Holy Spirit, it will not be forgiven. (Luke 12:10 ULB)

• it will not be forgiven - This can be stated in active form. Alternate translation: "God will not forgive him"(See: Active Passive)

This note provides an example of how translators can translate this passive sentence if their languages do not use passive sentences.

Rhetorical Question

... Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me? (Acts 9:4 ULB)

• why are you persecuting me? - This rhetorical question communicates a rebuke to Saul. In some languages, it may be more natural to translate this as a statement or command. Alternate translation: "You are persecuting me!" or "Stop persecuting me!" (See: Rhetorical Questions)

The translation suggestion here provides an alternate way to translate the rhetorical question if your language does not use that form of rhetorical question to rebuke someone.

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Notes That Have Alternate Meanings

Description

Sometimes Bible scholars do not know for sure, or do not agree on, what a particular phrase or sentence in the Bible means. Some reasons for this include:

1. There are minor differences in the ancient Bible texts.
2. A word in the ancient Bible texts is rarely used, so its meaning is not clearly known.
3. A word in the original language may have more than one meaning or use.
4. It may not be clear what a word (such as a pronoun) in the original language refers to in a particular phrase.

When many scholars say that a word or phrase means one thing, and many others say that it means other things, we often have notes showing the most common meanings that they give.

Sometimes translators can translate the text into their language in such a way that readers can understand any of the possible meanings. Sometimes translators have to decide which meaning to translate.

Sometimes the ULB translators had to choose one of the meanings in order to make the text understandable. Our notes for these situations tell about the meanings that are used in other versions.

The translator needs to decide which meaning to translate. He may choose the meaning used in the ULB or he may choose one of the other meanings if the people in their community use and respect another Bible version that has one of those other meanings.

Translation Notes Examples

When she did so, he measured six large measures of barley into it and put the load on her. Then he went into the city.

• Then he went into the city - Most ancient copies have "he went," but some have "she went." There are English versions with both. The better choice is "he went."

I will go before you and level the mountains ... (Isaiah 45:2 ULB)

• the mountains - The Hebrew word used in the text is rare and is of an uncertain meaning. Some modern versions have "rough places" or "crooked places."

But the king of Assyria mobilized his great army, sending Tartan and Rabsaris and the chief commander ... (2 Kings 18:17 ULB)

• Tartan ... Rabsaris - Some Bibles translate these as proper names. Other versions of the Bible translate them as titles. Alternate translation: "the Tartan ... the Rabsaris" or "the leader of the soldier ... a court official" (See: [[https://git.door43.org/unfoldingWord/en_ta/src/master/translate/translate-names.md]])

While he was speaking to me using these words, I turned my face toward the ground and was unable to speak. One who was like the sons of man touched my lips and I opened my mouth and spoke to him who stood before me ... (Daniel 10: 15-16 ULB)

• One who was like the sons of man
  This may refer to the one who had just spoken to Daniel. However, some versions interpret it as referring to a different person. Alternate translation: "This one, who looked like a human"

Translation Strategies

1. Translate it in such a way that the reader could understand either meaning as a possibility.
2. If it is not possible to do that in your language, then choose a meaning and translate it with that meaning.
3. If not choosing a meaning would make it hard for the readers to understand the passage in general, then choose a meaning and translate it with that meaning.

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Notes with Possible Meanings

Description

Sometimes Bible scholars do not know for sure, or do not agree on, what a particular phrase or sentence in the Bible means. Some reasons for this include:

1. There are minor differences in the ancient Bible texts.
2. A word in the ancient Bible texts is rarely used, so its meaning is not clearly known.
3. A word in the original language may have more than one meaning or use.
4. It may not be clear what a word (such as a pronoun) in the original language refers to in a particular phrase.

When many scholars say that a word or phrase means one thing, and many others say that it means other things, we often have notes showing the most common meanings that they give.

Sometimes translators can translate the text into their language in such a way that readers can understand any of the possible meanings. Sometimes translators have to decide which meaning to translate.

When the ULB translators could translate the text in a way such that readers can understand the multiple meanings, our notes begin with "Possible meanings are" and then give a numbered list. We recommend that you use the first meaning given. However, if people in your community have access to another Bible that uses one of the other possible meanings, you may decide that it is better to use that meaning.

Translation Notes Examples

But take a small number of hairs from them and tie them into the folds of your robe. (Ezekiel 5:3 ULB)

• the folds of your robe -- Possible meanings are 1) "the cloth on your arms" or "your sleeves" or 2) "the end of the cloth on your robe" or "your hem" or 3) the fold in the garment where it is tucked into the belt.

This note has the ULB text followed by three possible meanings. The word translated by "the folds of your robe" refers to the loose parts of the robe. Most scholars believe it refers here to the sleeves, but it could also refer to the loose part at the bottom or also to the folds in the middle, around the belt.

But Simon Peter, when he saw it, fell down at Jesus's knees, saying, "Depart from me, for I am a sinful man, Lord." (Luke 5:8 ULB)

• fell down at Jesus's knees - Possible meanings are 1) "knelt down before Jesus" or 2) "bowed down at Jesus feet" or 3) "lay down on the ground at Jesus feet." Peter did not fall accidentally. He did this as a sign of humility and respect for Jesus.

Translation Strategies

1. Translate it in such a way that the reader could understand either meaning as a possibility.
2. If it is not possible to do that in your language, then choose a meaning and translate it with that meaning.
3. If not choosing a meaning would make it hard for the readers to understand the passage in general, then choose a meaning and translate it with that meaning.

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Notes with Links

There are two types of links in the Translation Notes: links to a Translation Manual topic page and links for repeated words or phrases within the same book.

Translation Manual Topics

The Translation Manual contains a section called Translation Topics. This section provides specific explanations, support, and suggestions for handling various aspects of translating Scripture. Translation Topics is divided into short sections that are designed to be highly flexible for just-in-time learning for both in web and offline mobile video formats.

Each translationNote follows a phrase from the ULB and will provide immediate help on how to translate that phrase. Sometimes there will be a statement in parenthesis at the end of the suggested translation that may look like this: (See: Metaphor). The word or words in green are a link to a topic in the Translation Manual. You can click on the link to learn more about the topic.

There are several reasons to read the topic information:

• Learning about the topic will help the translator to translate more accurately.
• The topics have been chosen to provide a basic understanding of the principles and strategies of translation.

Examples

• evening and morning - This refers to the whole day. Two parts of the day are used to refer to the whole day. In the Jewish culture, a day begins when the sun sets. (See: Merism)
• walking - Here walking is a metaphor meaning to obey. Alternate translation: "obeying" (See: Metaphor)
• made it known - This is an idiom. Alternate translation: "communicated it" (See: Idiom)

Repeated Phrases in a Book

Sometimes a phrase is used multiple times in one book. When this happens, there will be a link in the Translation Notes (green chapter and verse numbers that you can click on) that will take you back to where you have translated that phrase before. There are several reasons why you will want to go to the place where the word or phrase was translated before:

• This will make it easier for you to translate this phrase by reminding you of how you have already translated it.
• This will make your translation faster and more consistent because you will be reminded to translate that phrase in the same way each time.

If a translation that you have used before for the same phrase does not fit a new context, then you will have to think of a new way to translate it. In this case, you should make a note of it and discuss it with others on the translation team.

These links will only take you back to notes in the book that you are working on.

Examples

• be fruitful and multiply - See how you translated these commands in Genesis 1:22.
• everything that creeps along the ground - This includes all types of small animals. See how you translated this in Genesis 1:25.
• will be blessed in him - "will be blessed because of Abraham" or "will be blessed because I have blessed Abraham." For translating "in him" see how you translated "through you" in Genesis 12:3.

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Notes that Identify Figures of Speech

Description

Figures of speech are ways of saying things that use words in non-literal ways. That is, the meaning of a figure of speech is not the same as the more direct meaning of its words. There are many different types of figures of speech.

In the Translation Notes there will be an explanation about the meaning of a figure of speech that is in the passage. Sometimes an alternate translation is provided. There will also be a link to page in the translation topics section of the Translation Manual that gives additional information and strategies for that kind of figure of speech.

In order to translate the meaning, you need to be able to recognize the figure of speech and know what it means in the source language. Then you can choose either a figure of speech or a direct way to communicate that same meaning in the target language.

Translation Notes Examples

Many will come in my name and say, 'I am he,' and they will lead many astray. (Mark 13:6 ULB)

• in my name - This is metonym. Possible meanings are 1) Alternate translation: "claiming my authority" or 2) Alternate translation: "claiming that God sent them." (See: [[https://git.door43.org/unfoldingWord/en_ta/src/master/jit/figs-metonymy.md]])

The figure of speech in this Note is called a metonymy. The phrase "in my name" does not refer to the speaker's name (Jesus), but to his person and authority. The Note explains the metonymy in this passage by giving two alternate translations. After that, there is a link to the tA page about metonymy. Click on the link to learn about metonymy and general strategies for translating metonymys.

... "You offspring of vipers! Who warned you to run away from the wrath that is coming? (Luke 3:7 ULB)

• You offspring of vipers - This is a metaphor. Here "offspring of" means "having the characteristic of." Vipers are poisonous snakes that are dangerous and represent evil. Alternate translation: "You evil poisonous snakes" or "You are evil, like poisonous snakes (See: [[https://git.door43.org/unfoldingWord/en_ta/src/master/jit/figs-meta.mdphor]])

The figure of speech in this Note is called a metaphor. The Note explains the metaphor and gives two alternate translations. After that, there is a link to the tA page about metaphors. Click on the link to learn about metaphors and general strategies for translating them.

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Notes that Identify Indirect and Direct Quotes

Description

There are two kinds of quotations: direct quotation and indirect quotation. When translating a quotation, translators need to decide whether to translate it as a direct quotation or an indirect quotation. (See: Direct and Indirect Quotations)

When there is a direct or indirect quote in the ULB, the notes may have an option for translating it as the other kind of quote. The translation suggestion may start with "It can be translated as a direct quote:" or "It can be translated as an indirect quote:" and it will be followed by that kind of quote. This will be followed by a link to the information page called "Direct and Indirect Quotations" that explains both kinds of quotations.

There may be a note about direct and indirect quotes when a quote has another quote inside of it, because these can be confusing. In some languages it may be more natural to translate one of these quotes with a direct quote and the other quote with an indirect quote. The note will end with a link to the information page called "Quotes within Quotes."

Translation Notes Examples

He instructed him to tell no one but told him "Go on your way ... (Luke 5:14 ULB)

• He instructed him to tell no one but told him "Go on your way - Jesus's instruction can be stated as a direct quote. Alternate translation: "'Do not tell anyone, but go on your way" (See: Direct and Indirect Quotes)

Here the translationNote shows how to change the indirect quote to a direct quote, in case that would be clearer or more natural in the target language.

At the time of the harvest I will say to the reapers, "First pull out the weeds and tie them in bundles to burn them, but gather the wheat into my barn." (Matthew 13:30 ULB)

• I will say to the reapers, "First pull out the weeds and tie them in bundles to burn them, but gather the wheat into my barn" - You can translate this as an indirect quote: "I will tell the reapers to first gather up the weeds and tie them in bundles to burn them, then gather the wheat into my barn." (See: Direct and Indirect Quotations)

Here the translationNote shows how to change the direct quote to an indirect quote, in case that would be clearer or more natural in the target language.

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Notes for Long ULB Phrases

Description

Sometimes there are notes for a phrase and separate notes for portions of that phrase. In that case, the larger phrase is explained first, and its parts afterward.

Translation Notes Examples

But it is to the extent of your hardness and unrepentant heart that you are storing up for yourself wrath in the day of wrath ... (Romans 2:5 ULB)

• But it is to the extent of your hardness and unrepentant heart - Paul uses a metaphor to compare a person who refuses to obey God to something hard, like a stone. He also uses the metonym "heart" to represent the whole person. Alternate translation: "It is because you refuse to listen and repent" (See: Metaphor and Metonymy)
• hardness and unrepentant heart - This is a doublet that you can combine as "unrepentant heart." (See: Doublet)

In this example the first note explains the metaphor and the metonymy, and the second explains the doublet in the same passage.

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translationWords

translationWords is a collection of short articles about various words found in the Bible and the Open Bible Stories. Some of the words are key terms, with special meaning in the Bible. Some are words for things that may be unknown in some parts of the world, such as certain kinds of animals, plants, tools, or customs. Some words are the names of particular people or places in the Bible. The articles provide definitions or explanations, along with suggestions about how to translate the words, links to other words with related meanings, and links to a few places in the Bible where the word occurs.

Translators are encouraged to read translationWord articles while checking their translations, particularly when a word is first encountered and anytime the meaning of the word seems to be unclear. Use the information in the article and discuss with the other members of the translation team what might be a good way to translate the word into your language.

When you find a good translation for a translationWord, try to use it consistently throughout the translation. If you find a place where that translation does not fit, then discuss it some more. It could be that there is another way of translating it that will be good all the time, or you might need more than one way of translating it depending on the context.

Keep track of which word or words you are using to translate each translationWord and make this information available to everyone on the translation team. This will help everyone on the translation team to know which words they should be using.

Kinds of translationWords

Names of People and Places

Names of people and places usually do not need to be translated with a word from your language. Usually they can just be pronounced and spelled in a way that people in your language would pronounce the word. (See: How to Translate Names)

Key Biblical Concepts

Some translation words refer to key concepts in the Bible. Some of these help us understand God, ourselves, and how we relate to him.

Words that refer to God

• God
• The Son of God
• The Holy Spirit

Behaviors and attitudes such as

• forgive (to stop resenting and being angry with someone who has done something hurtful or wrong)
• salvation (being saved or rescued from evil, enemies, or from danger)
• redemption (the act of buying back something that was previously owned or that was held captive)
• mercy (helping people who are in need)
• grace (help or kind regard that is given to someone who has not earned it)

Notice that some words are nouns that represent events, so they may need to be translated with a clause, that is, with a subject and a verb. See Abstract Nouns.

Unknown Ideas

Some translation words refer to a thing or custom that is unknown in the target language. Possible solutions are to use a descriptive phrase, substitute something similar, use a foreign word from another language, use a more general word or use more specific words. See the lesson on Translate Unknowns for more information.

Some common unknown ideas are:

Things in nature such as:

• barley (a kind of grain that people use to make bread)
• camel (a large animal that people use for carrying things when they travel)
• honey (a sweet, sticky liquid that honeybees make out of flower nectar)

Things people make such as:

• chariots (carts with two wheels that were pulled by horses)
• bronze (a kind of metal that people make by melting together the metals copper and tin)
• temple (a building where the Israelites offered sacrifices to God)
• sacrificial altar (a raised structure on which sacrifices were burned as gifts, or offerings, to God.)

Titles of people who hold an office such as:

• priest (someone who is chosen to offer sacrifices to God on behalf of his people)
• Pharisee (important group of Israel's religious leaders in Jesus's time)
• prophet (person who delivers messages that come directly from God)
• king (ruler of an independent city, state or country).

The translation team may need to discuss the definitions of these translationWords with other members of the church and community in order to discover the best way to translate them.

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Using translationQuestions

The translationQuestions (tQ) are comprehension questions that can be used to check your translation. They are based on the text of the ULB, but they can be used to check any Bible translation. They ask questions about the content of the Bible, which should not change as it is translated into different languages. Along with each question, tQ provides a suggested answer for that question. You can use these sets of questions and answers as a way to check the accuracy of your translation, and you can also use them with members of the language community.

Using tQ during community checks will help the translator know if the Target Language translation is clearly communicating the right thing. If members of the community can correctly answer a question using only the Target Language translation, then this indicates that the information that the question asked about was likely translated accurately.

Checking Translations with tQ

In order to use tQ when doing a self-check, follow these steps:

1. Translate a passage, or chapter, of the Bible.
2. Look at the section called "Questions."
3. Read the question entry for that passage.
4. Think of the answer from the translation. Try to not answer from what you know from other Bible translations.
5. Click on the question to have the answer displayed.
6. If your answer is correct, you may have done a good translation. But remember, you still need to test the translation with the language community, to see if it communicates that same meaning to others.

In order to use tQ for a community check, follow these steps:

1. Read the newly completed translation of a Bible chapter to one or more community members.
2. Tell the listeners to only answer the questions from this translation and to not answer using what they know from other translations of the Bible. This is a test of the translation, not of the people. Because of this, testing the translation with people who do not know the Bible well is very useful.
3. Look at the section called "Questions."
4. Read the first question entry for that chapter.
5. Ask the community members to answer the question. Remind them to think of the answer only from the translation.
6. Click on the question to have the answer displayed. If the community member's answer is very similar to the answer displayed, then the translation is clearly communicating the right thing. If the person cannot answer the question or answers incorrectly, the translation may not be communicating well and may need to be changed.
7. Continue with the rest of the questions for the chapter.

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Decisions for Writing Your Language

Important Questions About Writing Your Language

When a language is first written, the translation team may want to consider the following questions as they begin to translate.

• How literate is your language community in the source language? Would they recognize and benefit from the use of the source language's spelling, capitalization, or punctuation rules?
• What guidelines will you follow in writing names in the Bible? Will you use the names written in the national language Bible? Do you have guidelines from your own language as to how names are pronounced and if they need added titles? (Has this decision been acceptable to the community?)
• Should the writing of your language have a way of highlighting direct or quoted speech? How might you show it? (One answer is to use whatever devices the language from which your alphabet is borrowed uses. You may also consider using the punctuation of the source text.)

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Creating an Alphabet

If your language has not been written before, you might consider doing an audio translation of the Bible. However, if writing your language is a desire of the people, then you will need to create an alphabet and then you can use it to create a written form of the translation. This is a decision the community will need to be involved in as much as possible. Creating an alphabet requires listening to the sounds in your language and figuring out the best way to represent those sounds on paper.

It is important to make your alphabet easy to learn and read. One way to do this is to have one letter (or sequence of letters) represent each sound of your language. Here are some steps you can take to create your alphabet. It is best to work through these steps with a team rather than on your own. You will also want to ask people of the community to try reading something in the new alphabet once you've developed it. This will help affirm that your alphabet is workable, and will show you areas of weakness that may need to be changed.

If a neighboring language already has an alphabet, and if that language has similar sounds to your language, it might work well to simply use their alphabet. If not, then it may work to use the alphabet from the national language that you learned in school.

First try to write out several words in your language using the neighboring or national alphabet. When you are done, ask a mother tongue speaker of your language who is literate in the national language to read those words. Are they able to read them? What feedback or suggestions do they have?

Now try writing one word in your language for each letter of the neighboring or national alphabet. That language may have sounds that your language does not have. That is fine. However, as you are writing the words you may find that your language has sounds that the national language does not have. You will need to decide how to represent those sounds.

There are several ways to deal with this issue.

1. If there are letters in the other language that represent sounds that your language does not have, you may be able to use one of those letters to represent a different sound in your language.

2. If a sound in your language is similar to another sound in your language, you may be able to use one letter for both sounds, but modify that letter for one of the sounds by changing its shape a little or by adding a mark to the letter. For example, if you have a sound represented by s, and a similar sound that the other language does not have, you could add a mark to the letter to represent that sound, such as š, ṣ, or ș.

3. Another way is to combine the letter with another, such as is done in English with ch, sh, th, and ng.

If you find that there is a group of sounds that seem to all have the same kind of difference from the national language sounds, then it is good to modify that group of letters in the same way.

For all of these, you will need to tell people what those letters represent. They may not realize that those letters represent sounds different from those in the national language.

Make a list of all the letters you propose to use in your language. As you and the team work on Bible translation, start by using the letters in your list. As you work, you may discover other sounds that you need to represent. Or you may realize that you are representing one sound two different ways. The translation team should discuss how to represent these sounds, agree on a way to represent them, and continue translating. This may be an ongoing process.

If the national language uses a writing system other than the Latin alphabet (from which the letters of the English alphabet come), then think about the different marks that you could use to modify the symbols so that they can represent the sounds of your language. It is best if you can mark the symbols in ways that can be reproduced on a computer. (You can experiment with the writing systems in a word processor or with the keyboards in https://keyman.com) If you need help creating a keyboard, send an email request to helpdesk@techadvancement.com.

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Consistent Spelling

In order for readers to be able to read and understand the translation easily, it is important that you spell words consistently. This can be difficult if there is not a tradition of writing or spelling in your language. Consistent spelling is even more difficult with multiple translators working on the project.

As you work together as a team, you will want to talk together about words that are difficult to spell. If the words have sounds in them that are difficult to represent, then you may need to make a change in the writing system that you are using (see Creating an Alphabet). If the sounds in the words can be represented in different ways, then the team will need to agree on how to spell them.

The names of people and places in the Bible can be difficult to spell because many of them may be unknown in your language. As you encounter names, work with other translators to agree on how to spell them. Then make sure that all translators have an updated spelling list.

Computers can be a great help for checking spelling. If you are working on a Gateway Language, a word processor may have a dictionary already available. If you are translating into an Other Language, you can use the find and replace feature to fix misspelled words.

Correct and consistent spelling is an issue to be aware of as you go, and when you reach the checking steps you will want to carefully affirm that consistency has been achieved.

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Consistent Punctuation

"Punctuation" refers to the marks that indicate how a sentence is to be read or understood. Examples include the indicators of pauses, such as the comma or period, and marking the exact words of a speaker. In order for the reader to be able to read and understand the translation correctly, it is important that you use punctuation consistently.

For newly written languages, it may be easiest to adopt the method of punctuation that the Gateway Language uses, or that a national language Bible or related-language Bible uses. As you begin translating, you will come to situations where you will need to make decisions on punctuation. Work together as a team to develop consistant standards, and make sure everyone knows what those standards are.

Later as you go through the different levels of checking, keep your eye open for inconsistancies in punctuation. Additionally, you can ask some with appropriate education from your language group to read through and edit the translation for punctuation and make notes of questionable areas for the translation team to review and edit.

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A Few Punctuation Marks in the Bible

Description

The Unlocked Literal Bible (ULB) and Unlocked Dynamic Bible (UDB) use certain English punctuation that you may not recognize or know the specific purpose of. They are ellipsis marks, long dashes, parentheses. This page explains those symbols and what they mean. and indentation to show how information in the text is related to what is around it.

Ellipsis marks

Definition - Ellipsis marks (...) are used to show that either someone did not finish a sentence he started, or that the author did not quote all of what someone said.

In Matthew 9:3-6, the ellipsis mark shows that Jesus did not finish his sentence to the scribes when he turned his attention to the paralyzed man and spoke to him:

Behold, some of the scribes said among themselves, "This man is blaspheming." Jesus knew their thoughts and said, "Why are you thinking evil in your hearts? For which is easier, to say, 'Your sins are forgiven,' or to say, 'Get up and walk'? But that you may know that the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins,..." he said to the paralytic, "Get up, pick up your mat, and go to your house." (ULB)

In Mark 11:31-33, the ellipsis mark shows that either the religious leaders did not finish their sentence, or Mark did not finish writing what they said.

They discussed between themselves and argued and said, "If we say, 'From heaven,' he will say, 'Why then did you not believe him?' But if we say, 'From men,' ... ." They were afraid of the people, for everyone was convinced that John was a prophet. Then they answered Jesus and said, "We do not know." Then Jesus said to them, "Neither will I tell you by what authority I do these things." (ULB)

Long Dashes

Definition - Long dashes (—) introduce information that is immediately relevant to what came before it. For example:

Then two men will be in a field—one will be taken, and one will be left. Two women will be grinding with a mill—one will be taken, and one will be left. Therefore be on your guard, for you do not know on what day your Lord will come. (Matthew 24:40-41 ULB)

Parentheses

Definition - Parentheses "( )" show that some information is an explanation or afterthought.

It is background information that the writer put in that place to help the reader understand the material around it.

In John 6:6, John interrupted the story he was writing to explain that Jesus already knew what he was going to do. This is put in parentheses.

⁵When Jesus looked up and saw a great crowd coming to him, he said to Philip, "Where are we going to buy bread so that these may eat?" ⁶(But Jesus said this to test Philip, for he himself knew what he was going to do.) ⁷Philip answered him, "Two hundred denarii worth of bread would not be sufficient for each one to have even a little." (John 6:5-7 ULB)

The words in the parentheses below are not what Jesus was saying, but what Matthew was saying to the reader, to alert the reader that Jesus was using words that they would need to think about and interpret.

"Therefore, when you see the abomination of desolation, which was spoken of by Daniel the prophet, standing in the holy place" (let the reader understand), "let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains, let him who is on the housetop not go down to take anything out of his house, and let him who is in the field not return to take his cloak." (Matthew 24:15-18 ULB)

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Presentation of Translation

Section Headings

Decisions about Section Headings

One of the decisions that the translation team will have to make is whether or not to use section headings. Section headings are like titles to each section of the Bible that begins a new topic. The section heading lets people know what that section is about. Some Bible translations use them, and others do not. You may want to follow the practice of the Bible in the national language that most people use. You will also want to find out what the language community prefers.

Using section headings requires more work, because you will have to either write or translate each one, in addition to the text of the Bible. It will also make your translation of the Bible longer. But section headings can be very helpful to your readers. Section headings make it much easier to find where the Bible talks about different things. If a person is looking for something in particular, he can just read the section headings until he finds one that introduces the topic that he wants to read about. Then he can read that section.

If you have decided to use section headings, then you will need to decide which kind to use. Again, you will want to find out which kind of section heading the language community prefers, and you may also choose to follow the style of the national language. Be sure to use a kind of section heading that the people will understand is not part of the text that it introduces. The section heading is not a part of scripture; it is just a guide to the different parts of scripture. You might be able to make this clear by putting a space before and after the section heading and using a different font (style of letters), or a different size of letters. See how the Bible in the national language does this, and test different methods with the language community.

Kinds of Section Headings

There are many different kinds of section headings. Here are some different kinds, with examples of how each one would look for Mark 2:1-12:

• Summary statement: "By healing a paralyzed man, Jesus demonstrated his authority to forgive sins as well as to heal." This tries to summarize the main point of the section, and so it gives the most information in a full sentence.
• Explanatory comment: "Jesus heals a paralyzed man." This is also a full sentence, but gives just enough information to remind the reader which section follows.
• Topical reference: "Cure of a paralytic." This tries to be very short, only giving a label of a few words. This might save space, but it is probably only useful for people who already know the Bible well.
• Question: "Does Jesus have authority to heal and forgive sins?" This one creates a question that the information in the section answers. People who have a lot of questions about the Bible may find this especially helpful.
• "About" comment: "About Jesus healing a paralyzed man." This one makes it explicit that it is trying to tell you what the section is about. This may be the one that makes it easiest to see that the heading is not a part of the words of scripture.

As you can see, it is possible to make many different kinds of section headings, but they all have the same purpose. They all give the reader information about the main topic of the section of the Bible that follows. Some are shorter, and some are longer. Some give just a little information, and some give more. You may want to experiment with the different kinds, and ask people which kind they think is most helpful for them.

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Formatting

In written communication, we often use things other than words and punctuation to communicate meaning. Sometimes we use the arrangement of the words to communicate meaning. One way we do this is with line breaks and indentation. When text is indented, it means that the line of text starts further to the right than the lines of text above and below it that are not indented. Translation teams will need to decide if they want to use line breaks and indentation to communicate meaning and how they want to use it.

Verses or Paragraphs

Translation teams will need to decide whether to start each verse on a new line or to arrange the verses in paragraphs.

¹ In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.
² The earth was without form and empty. Darkness was upon the surface of the deep. The Spirit of God was moving above the surface of the waters.
³ God said, "Let there be light," and there was light.
⁴ God saw the light, that it was good. He divided the light from the darkness.
⁵ God called the light "day," and the darkness he called "night." This was evening and morning, the first day. (Genesis 1:1-5, ULB)

If teams decide to arrange the verses in paragraphs, they can use an empty line space to distinguish one paragraph from the next.

¹ In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. ² The earth was without form and empty. Darkness was upon the surface of the deep. The Spirit of God was moving above the surface of the waters.

³ God said, "Let there be light," and there was light. ⁴ God saw the light, that it was good. He divided the light from the darkness. ⁵ God called the light "day," and the darkness he called "night." This was evening and morning, the first day. (Genesis 1:1-5, ULB)

Alternatively, or in addition to the line space, the first line of each paragraph can be indented.

    ¹ In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. ² The earth was without form and empty. Darkness was upon the surface of the deep. The Spirit of God was moving above the surface of the waters.
    ³ God said, "Let there be light," and there was light. ⁴ God saw the light, that it was good. He divided the light from the darkness. ⁵ God called the light "day," and the darkness he called "night." This was evening and morning, the first day. (Genesis 1:1-5, ULB)

Poetry

Poetry does not have to be formatted in a special way. It can be formatted in the same way that other kinds of writing are formatted.

¹ Blessed is the man who does not walk in the advice of the wicked, or stand in the pathway with sinners, or sit in the assembly of mockers. ² But his delight is in the law of Yahweh, and on his law he meditates day and night. (Psalm 1:1-2, ULB)

However phrases can be written on a separate line and indented to show that they are the completion of a thought in a previous line or that they are to to be contrasted with or compared to a thought in a previous line. For example:

¹ Blessed is the man who does not walk in the advice of the wicked,
    or stand in the pathway with sinners,
    or sit in the assembly of mockers.
² But his delight is in the law of Yahweh,
    and on his law he meditates day and night. (Psalm 1:1-2, ULB)

Complicated Lists

Lists do not have to be formatted in a special way. They can be formatted in the same way that other kinds of information are formatted.

⁵These are the names of the leaders who must fight with you: From the tribe of Reuben, Elizur son of Shedeur; ⁶from the tribe of Simeon, Shelumiel son of Zurishaddai; ⁷from the tribe of Judah, Nahshon son of Amminadab; (Numbers 1:5-7 ULB)

However, in long or complicated lists, separate lines and indentation can be used to show which items belong to which lists.

⁵These are the names of the leaders who must fight with you:
    From the tribe of Reuben, Elizur son of Shedeur;
    ⁶from the tribe of Simeon, Shelumiel son of Zurishaddai;
    ⁷from the tribe of Judah, Nahshon son of Amminadab; (Numbers 1:5-7 ULB)

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Decisions Concerning Audio and Video Recordings

Translations teams who produce audio and video recordings will have decisions to make in addition to the standard decisions of every translation team. Once these decisions have been made they will need to be clearly communicated to those doing the recordings.

Pronunciation of names and borrowed words

• The team will need to decide how each name is to be pronounced, so that the names can be pronounced the same way every time.
• If the team borrows a word from their source text or from yet another language, they will need to decide how it is to be pronounced.

Identifying Chapters

The team will need to decide how chapters will be identified.
* Will it be simply a number or a word meaning "chapter" along with the number?
* If a word meaning "chapter" is used, what word will it be, and how will it be pronounced? * Will the narrator of the passage say it, or will someone else say it?

Section Headings

The team will need to decide whether or not to have section headings. If they decide to have them, they will need to make the following decisions.
* What kind of heading will they use? (See Section Headings)
* Will the narrator of the passage say it, or will someone else?

Narrators

One decision that is particular to audio and video recordings is who will narrate the scripture in the recording.
* Should it only be church leaders, or can others do it, too?
* Should it be only Christians, or can others do it, too?
* Should it be only men, or can women do it, too?
* Should it only be older people, or can younger people do it, too?

How will the scripture be narrated?

Another decision is whether one person or multiple people will speak.
* Will one person narrate the whole text, or will other people speak the words of the various people in the the text?
* When a scripture quotes another part of the scripture, will the narrator speak those words, or will someone else speak them?

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File Formats

The Technical Nature of Translation

While a large part of translation has to do with language, words, and sentences, it is also true that a major aspect of translation is technical in nature. From creating alphabets, typing, typesetting, formatting, publishing, and distributing, there are many technical aspects to translation. In order to make all this possible, there are some standards that have been adopted.

USFM: Bible Translation Format

For many years, the standard format for Bible translation has been USFM (which stands for Unified Standard Format Markers). We have adopted this standard as well.

USFM is a type of markup language that tells a computer program how to format the text. For instance, each chapter is marked like this ''\c 1'' or ''\c 33''. Verse markers might look like ''\v 8'' or ''\v 14''. Paragraphs are marked ''\p''. There are many other markers like this that have specific meaning. So a passage like John 1:1-2 in USFM will look like this:

\c 1 \p \v 1 In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. \v 2 This one, the Word, was in the beginning with God.

When a computer program that can read USFM sees this, it is able to format all of the chapter markers the same way (for instance, with a larger number) and all the verse numbers the same way (for instance, with a small superscript number).

Bible translations need to be written with USFM markers for us to be able to use them!

To read more about USFM notation, please read http://paratext.org/about/usfm .

How To Do a Bible Translation in USFM

Most people do not know how to write using USFM markers. This is one of the reasons why translationStudio was created. When you do a translation in translationStudio, what you see looks very similar to a normal word processor document without showing the USFM markers. This way, when you upload your translation from translationStudio, what is being uploaded is already formatted in USFM.

Converting a Translation to USFM

Though it is strongly encouraged to only do a translation using USFM markers, sometimes a translation is done without using USFM. This type of translation still can be used, but first the USFM markers must be added. One way to do this is to copy and paste it into translationStudio, then place the verse markers in the correct place. When this is done, the translation will be able to be exported as USFM. This is a very arduous task, so we strongly recommend doing your Bible translation work from the beginning in translationStudio or some other program that uses USFM markers.

Conclusion

The easiest way to get content marked up with USFM is by using an editor that is specifically designed to do that. If a word processor or a text editor is used, these markers must be manually entered.

Note: Making text bold, italic, or underlined in a word processor does not make it bold, italic, or underlined in a markup language. This type of formatting must be done by writing the designated symbols.

When contemplating which software to use, please keep in mind that translation is not just about words; there are many technical aspects that need to be taken into consideration. Whatever software is used, just remember that Bible translations need to be written using USFM markers.

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